Book Review: Eurich, Johannes & Lob–Hüdepohl, Andreas 2014. Behinderung – Profile inklusiver Theologie, Diakonie und Kirche.

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The ecumenical series Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche, as edited by the Protestant Professor Johannes Eurich (Diakoniewissenschaftliches Institut Heidelberg) and the Roman Catholic Professor Andreas Lob-Hüdepohl (Katholische Hochschule für Sozialwesen Berlin), is currently the most comprehensive on the topic of Disability Studies in the German-speaking world. In 21 contributions, from the fields of special education, pastoral care for the disabled, ethics, diaconia and canon law, the ecclesiastical context of the inclusion of people with physical or mental disabilities is discussed. The starting point will be the publications of the World Council of Churches “Church of All. A preliminary declaration” (2004) and the Catholic bishops of Germany under the motto “unBehindert Leben und Glauben teilen” (2003), which arose around the European Year of People with Disabilities (2003). In the preface, the ecclesiastical-theological guiding idea becomes clear, namely to perceive people with disabilities, who have so far rather been objects to be talked about, now as subjects of their own testimony of faith (p. 9).

Interesting are the various also critical perspectives on inclusion that are taken here, as well as topics that are self-reflective and worth thinking about. These include Catholic canon law oriented toward the physical deficit with regard to the office of ordination or as a minister of the church, the Lord’s Supper as a place of being unbroken, disability and sexuality as a taboo subject, as well as disability and growing old.

Ottmar Fuchs interprets inclusion as a theological guiding category (pp. 12-36). He criticizes the exclusionary black-and-white picture of “fundamentalist” circles and their stigmatization attempts to maintain the fronts (pp. 19, 26). He defines the concept of compassion on two levels. On the one hand, ‘pity’ can be motivated by a natural defensive attitude due to embarrassing emotion, but on the other hand it is also a creative co-suffering that grows and becomes active (p. 22). From this, Fuchs derives his definition of compassion as interrupting compassionate pain, which he considers to be sustainable enough to bridge what is meant as deficient in the disabled person (pp. 26-28). He is critical of the general uncritical approval of inclusion without involving the people concerned themselves (costs, dismantling of state and private sponsors, etc.). A topic that Thomas Günther also takes up (pp. 92-94).

Roman Catholic canon law is criticized by Ottmar Fuchs (pp. 27-28), as well as by Thomas Schüller (pp. 178-186), especially its treatment of disabled theologians, which is reflected in the church. A similarly critical view of the Protestant pastoral ministry law is found in Thomas Jakubowski. It is similar to Catholic Church law, which is based on the patriarchal civil service law based on state welfare and grants a special position to the group of addressees. In such legal constellations, people with disabilities fall through the cracks because of their needs, because they are considered ‘beneficiaries’ or ‘noble disabled people’ for cost reasons, because of their otherness.

The question of suffering or theodicy is discussed by several authors. Johannes von Lüpke looks for points of reference in the ‘poor’ and the ‘needy’. In his opinion, the gospels revolve around this group of people. They tie in with the instructions (Torah) given in the Hebrew Bible for the compensation of social injustice, as symbolized by the ‘poor and widows’. In this sense he can speak of the divinity of disabled persons (p. 37-40). Thomas Günter looks critically at the creation discourse of Genesis. Instead of the ‘good creation’ he finds the immanent divine ‘defense’ and ‘elimination’ of unwanted states as norm. For example, chaos becomes order, darkest night becomes light day, and man is alone as a tragic condition. This post-control of God runs through the Bible and ends alone in the self-limitation of God. It is God Himself who can be found in this readjustment. In it the unbridgeable gap between the human states of being is abolished (p. 75). Manfred Oeming deals with the doing-becoming context (TEZ) of the Holy Scripture. He works out a “short-term retribution” in the interpretation, this shortens truths and looks for culprits. He therefore defines the TEZ as a rule of thumb, which also allows exceptions (p. 116). Markus Schiefer-Ferrari presents on the theology of rupture with regard to the breaking of the bread and the being broken of the body of Christ. In doing so, while rejecting the exegetical finding introduced by John Hull, who had an impairment of the sense of sight, he finds an inclusive approach in the ‘image of the Lord’s Supper’. Here, it is not the communal aspect of the meal, but precisely the diversity of the actors that becomes the reflection and expression of inclusive Christian diversity (p. 142).

There are two contributions on the topic of disability and sexuality. One by Andreas Lob-Hüdepohl (pp. 154-166) and one by Thorsten Hinz and Joachim Walter (pp. 284-286). The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities singles out the sexual sphere as requiring special protection. Assaults on weaker women, especially those who are dependent on care, is nothing new. With regard to people with physical or mental limitations, a special need for protection and also application is demanded. How should an assisted person live sexuality? How can active or passive sexual assistance look like without ending up as prostitution? How can a church that advocated sexual eugenics (sterilization, abortion) during the Third Reich credibly offer assistance in this area (p. 162)?

The other contributions discuss ecclesiastical inclusive models for shaping the church in diversity (Sabine Schäper, Wolfhard Schweiker, Johannes Eurich, Cornelia Coenen-Marx), as well as individual projects (Bettina Kiesbye and Inge Ostertag, Jochen Straub, Kyra Seufert and Gerd Frey-Seufert). Brigitte Huber’s brief reflection on the new church documents mentioned in the opening section above is worth mentioning (pp. 244-247), since their influence on church practice is not yet foreseeable.

It is not entirely clear according to which criteria this compilation took place or which target group was aimed at. Nevertheless, the contributions are indicative of areas of research in disability studies, especially with regard to diakonia as the inner mission of the church. In addition to a wide range of projects, the theological-hermeneutical reappraisal of inclusion as a guiding principle has been helpfully presented.

Book Review: Danys, Miroslav 2016. Diakonie im Herzen Europas: Ursprünge, Entwicklungen und aktuelle Herausforderungen in West & Ost, neu betrachtet aus Anlass des Reformationsjubiläums

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Miroslav Danys (pastor; East European representative of the Lippische Landeskirche) is described as a missiological bridge builder between East and West (quote on the cover). He is a connoisseur of communism and an observer of developments after the political changes of the 1990s. Danys sees the future of diaconia (church lead social work) in a well-connected Europe. Only with the help of the church can such a social institution, which respects all people, be maintained.

His homeland is the Teschener Land with the city of the same name (Cieszyn), which he locates in Central Europe. This geographical area is placed in today’s Poland on the border with the Czech Republic. The main focus of his research is the church-community diaconia, both before, during and after the political change. He focuses primarily on the former GDR (former East-Germany), the part of Poland he knows, and the Czech Republic. The political will and the spirit of the times are closely related to the possibilities of development of church-community diaconia.

Danys begins with a retrospective. He looks at the person of Lorenzo Vallas (15th century), who, according to Danys, founded during the Reformation the social work in the late Middle Ages. His work was prepared by the Ultramontanes, who included disciples of Peter Valdes, the founder of the Waldensians. From the 11th-12th centuries, the medieval era of “early industrialization” led to the lower class of wage laborers. The specialized work attitude brought for a higher productivity in the context of the emerging early capitalism, but also forced this stratum of the population often into poverty and thus into social dependence. This was countered by the church-parish diaconia. Initiated by private individuals or church institutions, the model of Jesus’ martyrdom forms the practical and theological basis of social service to others (p. 8).

Dany’s gaze now turns to the territory of present-day Poland. From the 17th century it became a settlement area of German migrants from the West and Jewish pogrom refugees from the East (Russia). The German migrants brought with them Protestant thinking, the Bible and its liturgical aids. Using the example of Edmund Holtz, he describes the establishment of the Lutheran Deaconess Motherhouse movement, which developed from a home for persons with epilepsy and was established by Holtz in Lódź (p. 14). The Lutheran church was also able to develop similar diaconal structures in the Estonian-Latvian Baltic.

As an example, he presents the next historical strand of diaconal work in Poland at the Lutheran Epidemic House, now a hospital, in Warsaw. Founded in 1736 in a cemetery for dissidents, it became a care facility for Protestant sick or injured. After World War I, it opened its doors to all seeking help and became widely known (pp. 17-19). During World War II, it adjoined the Warsaw Ghetto and served as a place of refuge for a few Jewish ghetto refugees. It was completely destroyed in 1944 (p. 21).

Under communism, any public diaconia was nipped in the bud, since the state saw itself as the entity that provided for everyone. Church-community diakonia shifted to inner-church service to the needy. However, the scope for action was different in the various state entities, as the examples of the GDR (former East Germany), the Czechoslovak Republic, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary and the Baltic States teach us.

In the Czech Republic, the small eight-person deaconess ministry rose to fame in the early 19th century, as its fully trained nurses were one of the few institutions able to help many wounded war victims during World War I (pp. 63-64).

According to Danys, the communist party in the ČSR fell on particularly open ears, which crippled the church diaconia. Private property was almost completely banned, and the diaconia and churches were nationalized and thus run and paid for by the ideological enemy (p. 66). A 1956 study by Vlastimil Jaša describes the accompanying unsolved state problems in child and youth care, prostitution, the fight against alcoholism, the problem of divorces, abortions, childlessness and one-child marriages, and suicide. These were issues that had been concealed from the communist public. Taking up these grievances, after the fall of communism the deaconry was completely handed over into the hands of the Evangelical Church of the Bohemian Brethren (EKBB) (p. 74). The deaconesses had dissolved. The work is now focused on old people’s homes, the service to people with physical or mental limitations and therapeutic aids (p. 75). The church-community diaconia was now understood as a business enterprise in the social sector. In order to re-emphasize the ethical aspects of care, service and sacrifice, the diaconia was placed under a demanding charter in 1999.

In the Teschen Land (Poland), on the other hand, pietism led to an allegiance to the state and to simultaneous dissidents performing dissidentism (p. 85). Kulisz founded there in 1907 an institution called “Bethesda” (p. 89). The church-community diaconia became the expression of spiritual life in the whole region.

In the GDR, Poland and Hungary, diaconia was closely linked to church structures, which in turn could look to Western contacts and payments. Obviously, these relationships were the basis for better medical and nursing care than in other countries. The GDR in particular profited from these structures by using foreign capital to provide care.

After the fall of communism, the financial plight of the socialist countries became critical, especially for people with physical or mental limitations. The church and community structures in the countries discussed were able to address this need, even with Western personnel and financial assistance, and to develop their own diaconal structures.

Danys gives an excellent review and overview of the development of diaconia in Central Europe. Especially with regard to the missiological side of congregational building, disability studies and the church-congregational dealing with the “others” (otherness) in times of upheaval, his explanations offer helpful insights.

 

Diaconia ; disability studies ; disability ; disabled people ; church social services ; Poland ; Czechoslovakia

Book Review: Carswell, Jonathan & Wright, Joanna 2008. Susanne Geske: Ich will keine Rache – Das Drama von Malatya

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Persecution of Christians is an upcoming topic in the public. Quite a few institutions are now propagating it by very different means (most famous: Open Doors). Politicians are also discovering it more and more, as an argument for or against certain issues that need to be decided (e.g., refugee and citizenship[s] debate). It should not be too much to say that the “drama” described in this book, which took place in 2007 and also still in the political partner country Turkey, one of the countries of origin of Christianity, was probably an initial trigger to this development. Obviously, there is great interest in the developing evangelical church in Turkey. The research that accompanies it inspires international politics to publicly perceive the political pressure weighing on this church. German and European policymakers have picked up the signal as evidenced by constant round tables and the temporary deferral of Turkey’s application for full EU membership.

Carswell and Wright interviewed the widow, of the German-born victim of this religious-political assassination. Three men fell victim to the 5 perpetrators. In a death struggle lasting about three hours, the two men of Turkish origin and the spouse of the interviewee, who lived in Turkey, were slowly and agonizingly executed (detailed pp. 96-103). These clear words must be used for this meticulously planned contract killing of 5 Turkish religiously motivated nationalists in eastern Turkey (Malatya).

This book wants to show the context in which the drama took place and tells extensively about the long way of the German family of five, first to Turkey and then to the east there. It is a very personally told entertaining life and experience report. In view of the many guest workers of Turkish origin, refugees and latecomers, a change of perspective comes to the fore here, which makes it easy for the German and Turkish reader to learn from each other across cultures. Of course, not everyone will like the fact that the Christian concern is in the foreground, but it spices up the field of tension in which both cultures move on foreign soil. Mutual expectations are revealed and come to light in the encounters and finally in the conflict between religious interests.

In the first fifty pages, the widow describes the path and the price paid by church employees who want to work abroad. Anyone who wants to make their mark in the context of church development aid, in a foreign country, will be familiar with these experiences and will appreciate the openness of the narrative. This includes, first, the question of the geographical and local place where one wants to share one’s experience, second, the question of financial provision and security in foreign lands, and finally, the organization or institutions that publicly back the project.

In the following section, the next thirty pages (pp. 53-83) describe the journey in Turkey, leading up to the assassination. In addition to learning the language(s) and culture(s), this section offers insight into the experience of immersion in foreign cultures.

The next block (pp. 84-115) is taken up by the assassination and the ten days leading up to the funeral in Turkey. Impressive is the uncompromisingness with which in this report to the country of choice is held. This is also evident in the last twenty pages (pp. 115-136), where the widow and children invoke forgiveness from a higher power without reservation. The loss of the father and husband is not glossed over, but neither is it emphasized as a martyr’s achievement. Such is done by the outsiders who, among others, also stand for this book, which was written within a year, still completely under the impression of the assassination.

This book is a good and helpful testimony about Christian witness in the world. It offers deep insights into the challenges of church development aid in foreign countries. However, and this should be critically noted, it anticipates the postulate of a theology of suffering in this very field of church work. This assumption, however, cannot be taken unilaterally from the New Testament evidence, as is at the moment readily heard in the Western world. Increasing religious conflicts and the worldwide tensions contribute to this not insignificantly. However, it is detrimental to Christian thought and action to live “love of neighbor and enemy” solely from an attitude of suffering and oppression; rather, looking forward and upward drives discipleship. Martyrdom is then recorded as a process of church history, through subsequent generations, to strengthen in crisis situations and to consolidate the global church, in mutual advocacy (prayer and political intervention).

Christian development aid ; persecution ; martyr, martyrdom ; Islam ; Turkey , Germany ; faith ; missiology ; theology of suffering

Book Review: Conner, Benjamin T. 2018. Disabling Mission, Enabling Witness: Exploring Missiology Through the Lens of Disability Studies

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Benjamin T. Conner (PhD, Princeton Theological Seminary) is professor of practical theology at Western Theological Seminary in Holland, Michigan. There he also directs graduate education in disability studies and practical ministry. His critical plea consists of the observation that the church does not make use of the potential that lies in people with physical or mental disabilities. The church is not fulfilling its mission of gathering all social groups in reflection of human diversity. Disableism (USA ableism), the rejection of disabled persons, and paternalism prevent the faithful from opening up to this group of persons.

Conner begins by describing his observations within the church when it comes to people who do not follow the church’s daily life as expected. His etic ethnographic descriptions form the starting point of a non-disabled person positioning himself in Disability Missiology, an entirely new field. The relevant missiological questions for Conner are, first, what concepts or practices are appropriate to approach disability studies in a way that speaks to people with physical or mental challenges? Second, he is interested in the questions these individuals pose around missiology (p. 11).

Using several examples, Conner explores the question of what “disability” is and how to speak of it. Although about 15-20% of the world’s population falls under the WHO definition of disability, the life experience around “disability” is a topic in the middle of society, since everyone has been or will be temporarily physically or mentally limited due to age. Following the social disability model (UK), “disability” is constructed by the non-disabled. This is done in order to distinguish oneself from those who are supposedly “different” in their physical or mental state of life (p. 20-21). This is a heterogeneous group that cannot be limited to single criteria. Moreover, these constructs vary and change globally and locally depending on ethnicity and their cultural-linguistic worldviews. Conner ventures into transcultural perceptions of “disability,” but only in a very limited way and only for Native Indians and one North African ethnic group (pp. 22-24).

Conner then stays in the North American context and provides an overview of the particular problems of disabled people’s inactivity, abuse, and violence against them in family, homes, or workplaces (pp. 28-30). They are also particularly threatened or affected by poverty, homelessness, isolation, criminalization, or incarceration in the context there.

Missiology as a practice-oriented discipline should do justice to the diversity of human societies (p. 36). In the last century, North American missiological circles self-critically stated in the so-called Hocking Report (1932) that their mission was mostly accompanied by colonialist expansion. Conner now counters this with a concept based on the Missio Dei, i.e. God’s initiative in the mission, secondly on becoming native through contextualization, and thirdly on the Christian witness as a proclamation of the social pluriformity of Christian presence (p. 39). Particularly noteworthy is his emphasis on conversion as the central process of becoming indigenous within the contextualization (Andrew Walls; p. 42). Furthermore, missiology represents the discipline of Christian witness. Christian witness here includes proclamation to the outside world and communion to the inside world (pp. 50-54). On the latter, Conner troubles James Edward Lesslie Newbigin (1979), whose article Not Whole without the Handicapped pointed out the church’s disableism due to physical and spiritual exclusion of disabled persons.

In the third part, Conner points to the situation of the deaf. The missiological orientation of his observations reveals the paternalistic attitude of church workers when it comes to meeting people with aural limitations. The deaf community is particularly interesting in this regard, as there are groups within its ranks who value themselves as non-disabled. They argue that Deaf language is a fully inclusive communicative base that is open to everyone. This means that there is no restriction for this community. According to their interpretation, the construct “deaf, mute” obviously serves to stigmatize this group, even though there is no objective criterion of “otherness.” Conner informs readers of their racial discrimination, such as that exhibited by Alexander Graham Bell (*1847-†1922), inventor of the telephone (p. 73). He called for the complete extermination of this deaf defective human race. Similarly, the evangelization of deaf or hearing-impaired persons, as practiced by Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet (*1787-†1851), reflected a paternalistic arrogance. To him they were “heathens” to whom he was sent. Conner rightly asks why a “physical otherness” is equated with paganism? As a consequence, Gallaudet founded a pedagogical home, which was supposed to break through their sickness of spirit and their limitation of intellect in order to reach religious knowledge (p. 79). Conner points out that Gallaudet later applied the same arguments to indigenous Hawaiians. Nevertheless, based on his pedagogical premises, Gallaudet supports sign language but discriminates against those who fail to reach perfection in tongue reading or in learning written language (pp. 83-85).

Conner ventures a critical comparison with the indigenization of Christianity in Africa. There, Bible translation contributed significantly to the development of distinct Christian theological expressions after indigenous exegetes broke away from Western influence and found their own approaches to the Gospel. The deaf community also broke away from words and interpreted, through sign language, the implied interpersonal events described in the events. Their warm interpretation is enriching the church, Conner says (pp. 97-98).

In the final section, Conner describes his hermeneutical approach to iconic witness (p. 103). He has mental disabilities in mind. He counters their stigmatization with a change of perspective from rationalism to relationalism of human being. According to this interpretation, the iconic nature of our human existence is based on the mutual encounter and represents a sacrament of creation that brings God to bear in all human beings (p. 139).

Conner provides an anthropological-theological study that offers room for further research. To what extent the hermeneutical concept of “iconic witness” he presents is new or helpful in this regard remains to be seen.

 

missiology ; intercultural theology ; deafness ; deaf-mute ; iconic witness ; hermeneutics of symbols ; iconic witness.

Boow Review: Schipper, Jeremy 2011. Disability & Isaiah’s Suffering Servant

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This work is increasingly noticed in theological circles. The basic exegetical message that the description of the suffering of the Servant of God is an actual rather than an imagined or transmissible disability of a person also has missiological implications. In particular, it calls into question the diaconal-ethical orientation of the church toward people with disabilities.

Jeremy Schipper is a professor of Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) at Temple University in Pennsylvania. He has been involved with disability studies in relation to the Hebrew Bible since 2006. In doing so, he questions the common interpretive practice of interpreting the descriptions of disability or the disabled primarily allegorically. He sees no reason to approach the Hebrew Bible in this way, neither inner-biblically nor in the religious and linguistic comparison with other ancient writings. He is cautious and admits this approach as a possible option, but does not want to leave it as the only or preferred possibility (Conclusion, pp. 110-112). Schipper demonstrates that this approach is especially evident in the interpretations of the Servant of God in Isaiah 53.

In the interpretation of Isaiah he follows the general tradition, which divides Isaiah 53 into two parts: A divine speech or oracle as introduction and conclusion (52:13-15 and 53:11b-12) and as main part a psalm about the servant (53:1-11a). He rejects the theory that the psalm is a later insertion between two divine speeches, and thus that originally there was no description of an impairment, because of the different text-critical findings. He also emphasizes the variety of descriptions of disability and disabled people in the Hebrew Bible, especially in Isaiah (disability imagery).

Disability studies reveal three models of disability perception. The medical model, the social model from the UK, and the cultural model from the USA (pp. 14-20). The former is now declared inadequate. Schipper chooses a practice-based approach to disability. For him, age-related phenomena caused by slow deterioration are not included, but explicitly mentioned infertility (male, female, eunuchs), mobility, visual, hearing and mental limitations are. Ancient texts describe the timely perception of disability, but they do not give sufficient definitions of it.

Schipper cites the inner-biblical spiritual transmissions (metaphors) that play with vocabulary out of the realm of disability, of which Isaiah is not sparing (e.g., Isa 42:19; 56:10). Isaiah 53, however, goes beyond this, as the real physical and mental limitation of a person is described.

Another interpretation defines the servant as “suffering” but not disabled (p. 32; see below). In contrast, the experience of social isolation (Isa 53:3) points to a “real” rejection by otherness or disability. Implications of a religious substitution, such as from the Hittite and Assyrian realms for mentally handicapped persons used in place of the sick king, are not sufficiently evidenced to apply to Isa 53. Schipper discusses theories of a skin disease as proposed by Duhn (pp. 40-42) as well as interpretations that exclude disability as an interpretive option, namely of a servant of God who was injured (pp. 42-45; so, e.g., Whybray), killed (pp. 45-49), recovering (pp. 49-55), or imprisoned (pp. 55-57).

Chapter 3 is devoted to a text-critical analysis of Isaiah 53. In the course of antiquity, according to Schipper, a shift in view from a disabled servant of God to a non-disabled one is evident. Especially the Targum (ancient Aramaic interpretive translations) break away from the image of a disabled servant and speak more of an “anointed” (mšhy) rather than a “deformed” person (mišhat; Isa 52:14; pp. 69-71). In contrast, Jerome in the Vulgate and commentaries uses vocabulary from the realm of disability (p. 71).

The New Testament evidence extends to quotations from Isaiah 53 in the New Testament. Jesus’ healings and miracles form the reference. In addition to Matt 8:17, John 12:28 should also be mentioned, though in both cases disability does not play a role, but Jesus’ rejection despite his healings. Other passages referring to Isaiah 53 also point not to disability but to rejection and suffering. For example, in Lk 22:37, Mk 15:28 – Jesus as an innocent; in Acts 8:32-33 and 1Pt 2:22 – a martyr or in Rom 10:16 and 15:21 – reactions to the Servant of God. This New Testament tendency is likely to support the longstanding shift from understanding disabled people to the suffering servant of God.

In chapter 4, Schipper examines the myriad interpretations of the Servant of God as suffering, real-existent or to be interpreted collectively. At least fifteen historical persons are found in the interpretation (p. 84). The Servant is interpreted early on as Jesus, then again as Messiah (e.g. Justin, 2nd century; pp. 89-91), as king (pp. 91-93) or as prophet (pp. 93-99). Collective interpretations point to Israel, as represented, for example, by Origen in the 3rd century (pp. 99-100), or to suffering Zion (pp. 104-106). To illustrate the predominant tendency toward non-disability, Schipper also lists references to disability in terms of the Messiah or the Servant of God (pp. 85-89; including leprosy or the state of Eunuchs).

It is Schipper’s merit to have shown in brief how a biblical text, here Isaiah 53, can lose an original nuance and subsequently take all kinds of interpretative directions. With regard to disability, this is particularly tragic, since the “glocal” church must actively counteract an inherent paternalistic tendency or exclusion, in order to live up to its “inclusive” effect of being the church for all of all.

Isaiah ; Hebrew Bible ; Disability Studies ; suffering ; theodicy ; healing ; missiology ; theology

Disability Studies and Bible translation

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Abstract

This essay is a short introduction to Disability Studies and Bible translation. What is on the first glance not obvious, becomes much clearer when the linguistic and social impact of historic Bible translations is in focus. Not just political correctness but also an Inclusivist rethinking of the church is needed to overcome existing hermeneutics of Ableism or Disableism.

 

 

 

Disability Studies (DS) originates from social studies in the 1960s concurrent with both the gay and feminist liberation movements and Latin American liberation theology. Since then, there has been an increasing awareness of DS in theology, but not so much in missiology (intercultural theology in Germany) or in the Science of Bible translation. Research on, by, and with people with physical or mental impairment is yet to be introduced in these disciplines. Within Disability Studies, the history, the needs (e.g., care, assistance), and the social framework of adults with physical or mental impairment have been investigated. Less so in missiology or Intercultural Theology, where neither Christian parents nor other Christian care providers for children, or those groups that focus on Christian care have been in focus.

In the light of expensive long-term (Bible) translation training, preparation in intercultural-linguistics, costly member care and administrative structures, as well as the high cost of medical or physical aid both on the field and at home, there is an obvious lack of research on DS in missiology. Out of an inclusivist approach, such a need opens up the potential for sending organizations. For one it will help

gathering information about the needs of their staff with physical or mental impairment, as well as
evaluating concerns regarding disability within people groups on the field, in respect of at least ten percent of an ethnicity’s population (12.8% in US, 2017 census; 10% in Germany, 2016 census).
DS emerged out of the social prejudices against people with disabilities (i.e., ableism or disableism), in the form of

discrimination,
isolation, and
the exclusion of disabled persons.
It was implemented by veterans of war with a disability, and those persons with physical or mental impairment, who

had to live in special-care facilities isolated from a normal environment,
were unable to study at universities, or
to manage the needs of daily life (e.g., shopping, cooking, dealing with officials), due to the sheer fact of the inaccessibility of the public realm to them.
In addition, one would add the refusal by officials to listen to the needs of parents of children with impairment, especially regarding education or assisted care at home instead of in special-care homes. Whereas in the US, the outcry against the discrimination against the disabled was regarding the (in)accessibility and (lack of) education, in the UK and Germany, the focus was on seeking/the need for independent assisted daily life. Radical insider movements such as the “cripple movement” (Krüppelbewegung in Germany) were recognized on not just the national, but also the international level (Fandrey 1990). In 2006, the UN chartered the “Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.” The US, the UK, and Germany ratified the convention in 2009; by March 2018 there were 175 ratifications globally (Online see https://www.un.org/).

The terms “participation” and “integration” became keywords of the early days, later replaced by the multifaceted term “inclusion,” expressing an Inclusivist environment on all levels of life such as accessibility, assisted independent living, language, social acceptance, and perception. Historically, terminology of popular Bible translations (e.g., King James Version, Luther Bible) was very influential. Later, when by language shift some terminology was used in colloquial language as terms of abuse, the translation tradition did not adapt to modern Inclusivist language, but became exclusive. Examples such as “cripple,” “idiot,” “invalid,” “lame,” “monster,” etc., have nowadays become ostracized from acceptable usage. However, out of pity or sym- instead of empathy, exclusivist terminology is sometimes still used (un)consciously in Bible translation. For example, the 2017 revision of the Luther Bible still uses einen Lahmen, “a lame [person],” instead of “a paralyzed person” (Matt 4: 24), following the “Lutheran tradition” as a code for revision. One reason for this is the lack of disabled Bible translators, exegetes, and theological hermeneutists, bearing in mind the adage, “Nothing about us, without us.” This parallels the development of gender Inclusivist or Feminist language in the 1980s that resulted in revision in the Luther Bible in 1999 from Weib, which carried then the meaning ”bitch”, to Frau, “woman”.

There are similar demands in Bible translation for political correctness regarding the translation of descriptions of persons with a handicap as well as an Inclusivist perception by the Church. Wynn Kerry was one of the first to address this issue (2001). He gave four recommendations to translators, the most helpful one being to move from generalization to descriptive terminology. Thus “a lame person” may become “a man/woman with a mobility impairment,” and “a blind person” may be expressed as “a person with visual impairment.”  Mark 8:25 reads, “his sight was restored” in most (more literal) Bible translations (so NRSV; cf. Ger. wiederhergestellt). This leaves the audience with the assumption that the healed man’s “blindness” was most likely an impairment caused by illness in later age, since the man’s sight was “restored” (“he saw again,” assuming he saw at one time in life).  In a best-case scenario, the audience will wonder, whether the man was born blind or became blind later in life. This uncertainty would be obvious mainly to sensitive exegetes, who would use Inclusivist language in their rendition. Beyond that, hermeneutics must take into consideration that the Biblical authors reflected their culture-bound perception of disability.

Over more than nineteen centuries, literal translation transporting the NT authors’ perspective on disability led to the exclusion, isolation or, since the 18 c., relegation to special homes, of people with impairment, out of the Church’s mandate of social welfare (Ger. Diakonat). Nowadays, politics force the Church, as a public player, to make possible the inclusion of persons with disabilities on all levels of society as leaders, pastors, and staff, and of course members and interested parties. In this way, hopefully, sympathy out of pity is replaced in the Church by empathy out of equality, thus performing an Inclusivist role in building diversity in the communion of saints (Reynolds 2008).

 

Additional reading: Kerry 2007a, 2007b.

 

References

Fandrey, Walter 1990. Krüppel, Idioten, Irre. Zur Sozialgeschichte behinderter Menschen in Deutschland. Stuttgart: Silberburg-Verlag. [Engl.: Cripples, idiots, lunatics. On the Social History of Disabled People in Germany.].

Reynolds, Thomas E. 2008. Vulnerable Communion: A Theology of Disability and Hospitality. Grand Rapids: BrazosPress.

Wynn, Kerry 2001. Disability in Bible Translation. Bible Translator 52/4, 402-414. New York: UBS.

Wynn, Kerry H. 2007a. Johannine Healings and Otherness of Disability. Perspectives in Religious Studies 34, 61-75.

Wynn, Kerry H. 2007b. The Normate Hermeneutic and Interpretations of Disability within the Yahwistic Narratives, in Avalos, Hector, Melcher, Sarah J. & Schipper, Jeremy (eds.): This Abled Body. Rethinking Disabilities in Biblical Studies, 91-101. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.

 

 

 

Book Review: Rispler-Chaim, Vardit 2007. Disability in Islamic Law

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werner [at] forschungsstiftung.net

Vardit Rispler-Chaim is a professor of Arabic studies (language and literature) at the University of Haifa. Her field of research includes the legal provisions of Islamic legislation and their ethical implications. Her publications relate to practical areas of law such as human rights (1992), medical ethics (1993), women’s rights (1995), genetic research (1998), abortion (1999), and people with physical or mental disabilities (2007). As a yield for missiology, her research broadens the view on other religions with regard to the social position there and the ethical ideas on this latter group of persons.

In 96 pages, she describes Islamic jurisprudence with regard to people with disabilities. It subdivides into the exercise of religious duties by people with limitations (pp. 19-40), the position of the same with regard to jihad (pp. 41-46), the moral-ethical opinion on marriage with regard to people with physical or mental limitations (pp. 47-68), the legal perception of intersexual people (hermaphrodites; khunta; pp. 69-74), and finally the deliberate or unconscious injury/mutilation by people (pp. 75-92). A detailed appendix contains all the important fatwas (binding legal information) on the above-mentioned areas (pp. 97-134). An index to disabilities, to the Islamic-Arabic terminology used, and to the personalities mentioned in the book (pp. 163-171) are rounding up her research.

In her introduction, Rispler-Chaim addresses the perception of people with physical or mental disabilities in the public sphere and their social position with regard to human rights. She relates Islamic terminology used in religious Arabic to currently known limitations (pp. 3-5; e.g., marid pl. marda “sick person” vs. marad “disease”). Her ethical-medical debate is based on the widely used medical model in disability studies, but she is aware of the social and cultural model (pp. 16-17). Her research also includes AIDS and intersex people (see below; pp. 10, 17), two areas on which there are a lot of fatwas. Homosexuality and AIDS are considered in Islam as a consequence of ethical and moral rejection.

World religions are similar in their social structure. There are the insiders and outsiders, the pious laity and the religiously responsible leaders (monks, clerics, etc.). Besides, people with physical or mental limitations generate in religious people the overall question of the meaning in life (theodicy). God, gods or divine powers have to be brought in line with the deviation from the normal (as also for diseases and catastrophes). In Islam, the cause of all deviation is causally founded in Allah; at the same time, it is up to the believer to seek blame not in Allah, but in himself (pp. 8-9). Reason (kafa’a, ‘aql) plays the basic prerequisite for meeting the religious demands of the religious communities (p. 20). Lack of reason excludes from or limits religious responsibility (e.g., leadership responsibility; p. 25).

Ritual purity (tahara) performs the foundation of the five Islamic religious obligations/pillars: the confession (not discussed), prayer five times (30:17; pp. 23-27), fasting (pp. 27-33), pilgrimage (pp. 34-37), alms tax (pp. 37-38).

Ritual ablutions for prayer are based, among other things, on the Qur’anic saying “In it [the Moschee. EW.] are people who like to purify themselves, and Allah loves those who purify themselves” (9:108; p. 19). People with limitations often cannot comply. Islamic jurisprudence therefore provides for exceptions. Rispler-Chaim emphasizes that each Islamic school of law has its own interpretation on this. The violation of the ritual purity commandment concerns above all the contamination by body fluids (urine, saliva, blood, menstruation, and sperm). Natural or also artificial exits are to be kept pure and closed during the prayers, e.g. by tampon, bandage, medical closures. Generally exempted are people with mental impairment, epileptics and unconscious people (p. 20). The Hanafites equate the former with children and enjoin them from the cleanings. If a person with disabilities (e.g., mobility impairment) finds help for ablution, he may use it. Alternatively to water sand is possible (special clay, dirt; p. 21, Fatwa 1996 of Mufti ‘Atiyya Saqr; 4:43; 5:6 and 2:267). There are also exceptions and recommendations for the prayer movements of kneeling, standing, lying (rak’as), such as leaning against the wall or objects. The obligatory prayer with its movements is recommended by fatwa as a rehabilitation measure (p. 27). Sheikh Muhammad Sayyid Tantawi (2000) ordered the translation of the Friday prayer for the deaf through sign language, which triggered fierce backlash as it distracted all believers (p. 2).

A role as imam is only possible to a limited extent for people with physical or mental disabilities (p. 25). Conceivable, but not preferred, are imams with limitations for the group of people they belong to (blindness, deafness, incontinence, castration).

Fasting is generally not recommended for people with paralysis in order to spare the heart. People with skin impairments, on the other hand, are advised to fast as a rehabilitation measure (p. 33).

The pilgrimage is recommended only for people who have no mobility impairment and no psychological impairment (e.g., 2:196). For those who perform the pilgrimage with assistive devices, become ill in the process, or overcome their impairment after the journey, it is not valid and should be repeated (Mufti ‘Atiyya Saqr and ‘Abd al-Qadir in 1993).

People with impairments are partially exempted from alms tax. They are compared to children who are also exempt (p. 38). As recipients, mentally impaired people in particular benefit from the tax under the aspect of poverty and need of help (9:60).

According to the interpretation, “the blind, the sick and the crippled” (24:61) are excluded from jihad, as are the mentally ill (pp. 42-43). The legislation provides exemptions for non-Muslims under Islamic rule for the disabled, as they fall under “the weak” and are considered harmless.

Rispler-Chaim discusses marriage requirements for people with disabilities, infertility, and genetic impairments (pp. 59-61). In Islamic soteriological terms, beauty, wealth, and childbearing capacity are especially rewarded (health remains unmentioned; pp. 49-52), which often generally excludes people with limitations. Since adoption is forbidden in Islam, Rispler-Chaim argues, medical methods for determining infertility or genetic defects are particularly sought after in Islam (p. 60).

Rispler-Chaim discusses intersexual people in great detail (pp. 69-74). Gender reassignment surgeries are approved by many fatwas if the “benefit” has been examined by experts (pp. 73-74). What is left open is what constitutes a “whole” man or woman.

Rispler-Chaim’s research provides deep insights into ethical and moral aspects of Islam, which are particularly evident in the treatment of people with disabilities as social indicators.

Book Review: Yong, Amos 2011. The Bible, Disability, and the Church

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werner [at] forschunginstitut.net

 

In missiology, unlike in theology, Disability Studies have not yet arrived. Disability Studies have an influence on missiological issues (church building, Bible translation, evangelism) based on hermeneutical and anthropological grounds. Amos, as a systematic theologian, provides an inclusion-oriented ecclesiology.

He writes from the perspective of a theologian whose brother Mark, 10 years younger, lives with Down syndrome (pp. 1-5). The father is pastor of a small, vibrant church in Northern California (p. 2). Amos briefly describes his observations of how his parents, church members, strangers, and even friends interact with his younger brother. He has already done so in detail in his worthwhile first publication, Theology and Down Syndrome: Reimagining Disability in Late Modernity (2007. Waco: Baylor University Press; note p. 5). The physical complications of “Down syndrome” come up as well (pp. 2-3), as do the mutual psychological-physical interdependencies between caregivers (nurses) and Mark (pp. 3-4). In this work, he focuses on interesting missiologist-ecclesiological and sociological questions regarding Disability Studies.

The author takes the reader on a search to the “theological meaning” of disability/disability (p. 5). In doing so, he is aware of the critical, theological insider voices that argue on discrimination against the disabled in the Biblical revelation (p. 6; “deniers”). He critically engages with these serious voices. Amos, however, wants to counter this perspective, by the redemptive hope about the experience of “disability” (pp. 6-7).

“Disability” for Amos is demarcated both, for one from “illness” and also from “not being disabled” (pp. 9-10). Although there are obviously no clear boundaries, those that address themselves as being meant know about a clear dividing line in society. They notice this immediately in the exclusion from and the marginalization by “the Normal”, defined in the term “being different”. This “otherness”, applied from the outside, also leads to manifold hostility towards the disabled (ableism). But what if the Christian community itself nurtures such tendencies, if the Bible itself fuels “ableism” or if such conclusions are drawn from it? Amos demands a tremendous courage of self-criticism from the Christian reader here (pp. 11-12).

Amos throws three premises into the field in order to argue in a result-oriented way despite generally existing prejudices (p. 13:

1) People with physical or mental limitations are made in the image of God (imago dei). Such is especially true through the filter of weakness in the person of Christ (imago Christi).

2) People with physical or mental limitations are first and foremost “human beings” and only secondarily “people with limitations”. They alone – not the “normals” – are entitled as agents to dispose of their limitations.

3) Still, physical-psychic limitations are present them as “the evil” (sin, satanic influences), or blame them of blemishes (ugliness, auxiliary tools, missing extremities) to be eliminated.

Amos’s gradation begins with theological reflections on the Hebrew Bible. Its cultic (purity) laws (e.g. Lev. 21:17-23) reflect God’s ideas on holiness. Priests with restrictions, are mentioned, but excluded from the cult such as the sacrificial service that is the entry into the Holy of Holies. They are forbidden certain services, but not participation, such as eating the sacrifices. Interestingly, people with aesthetic external limitations (not hearing or sensory limitations; p. 20) are also affected by the prohibitions. Deut 28:15-68 provides a broad outline of cultural and social exclusion based on disability and disease. Amos reflects on common Judeo-Christian commentaries (pp. 23-29). He places these in the context of other Old Testament references. For example, Jacob’s encounter with God resulting in a walking disability (hip; pp. 30-32), Mephibosheth’s (Saul’s grandson; pp. 32-34) paralysis, and at length Job’s “deformities” (monstrosity; pp. 35-40). Amos tries to summarize the Hebrew Bible’s treatment of disability under the aspect of “lamentation”, following the Psalms (pp. 40-47). Lament includes the common, searching question of being with God along people with and without disabilities (What do you want to say, O God?).

With regard to the New Testament, Amos uses mainly the Gospels for a clarification of the question of theodicy. Either the blind man (John 9; pp. 50-57) or demonic possession (p. 61), always the forgiveness of sins precedes the healings of the sick (pp. 60-63). Sin as such and disability/illness, as well as possession, are placed in close proximity to each other in the biblical context. Amos uses the strict separation of healing and forgiveness as taught by Jesus as a starting point to separate these three areas. He distrusts the conventional interpretations in common commentaries that do not make a clear separation (pp. 62-63).

Pentecost becomes for him the absolute turning point (from p. 73). Healing proceeds from God’s touch. From Pentecost on, all “believers” are directly touched by God, without any limitation (multisensory epistemology and holistic spirituality p. 78). Besides this being included, of people with limitations, in the divine covenant, Amos moves progressively to the Pauline texts. There he develops an inclusion-oriented “theology of weakness” (p. 88). He derives it from the presumed weakness or limitation of the apostle Paul. On this he builds his inclusive theology, which is based on the weakness of the church as an image of the weakness of Christ (chapter 4). The church itself, like an inclusive classroom that gathers people with limitations as well as the gifted and the “normal,” represents a holistic body. “With each other” one benefits “from each other” and thereby represents a holistic church social system.

In the final chapter, Amos outlines an inclusion-oriented ethic for the church. It is based on a) Jesus the high priest “compassionate in all things” (Heb 5), b) the church’s banquet hospitality open to all (e.g., Lk 14:15-24), and c) God’s rule over all and everything (Mt 25:31-46; pp. 130-136).

Amos works in a balanced and deliberative way toward an inclusion-oriented theological design. This emphasizes the meaning and value of people with limitations. For missiology, especially diacony and evangelism, this provides an opportunity for active enriching participation of all in the body of Christ. Critical is his positivistic view of biblical narratives and pericopes, which (un)consciously overlooks the ancient, paternalistic approach in dealing with people with limitations. However, it is his merit to cut extreme positions and to strike a balance between those in need of help, their intrinsic value and those willing to care.

Disability Studies and Intercultural Theology

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Eberhard Werner: werner (at) research institute (dot) net

Abstract

Until today, intercultural theology has not done much research in the field of disability studies. In particular, this applies to research on actors who themselves have had physical or mental limitations, or research that focuses on those with such challenges. For the former, some biographies do not explicitly address disability experience. Examples are for the latter, the founders of the Christian agencies Luise A. Cooper for the Hildesheimer Blindenmission (HBM) and Ernst Jakob and Hedwig Christoffel for the Mission of the Blind in the Orient, today Christoffel Blindenmission (CBM). This article will cover the history, motivation, and discourses around disability studies that arise from these fields of Christian activity. The interdisciplinary approach of intercultural theology determines the parameters to be applied in order to delineate the boundaries to the social sciences.

Disability Studies – an Overview

Disability Studies are composed of a multitude of individual disciplines. Disability History deals with historical relationships around people with physical or mental limitations (e.g. Nielsen 2013). Disability Worlds deals with life worlds, embodiment and social references and spaces of encountering people with and without physical or mental limitations (e.g. Whyte & Ingstad 1995). Disability Anthropology depicts ethnographic-biographical life worlds of physically and mentally challenged people (e.g., Gelya Frank 2000). Disability and Gender describes the power movements and the influences on people with physical or mental limitations with regard to the gender question. The special disadvantage of disabled women is in this regard (e.g. Jacob, Köbsell & Wollrad 2010, Boll, Ewinkel et al., 1985). Disability Theology describes the exegetical and hermeneutical deficits with regard to people with physical or mental limitations in theology (e.g. Young 2011). Disability Missiology is a currently evolving discipline. In this context, it is questioning historical descriptions based on inclusion, exclusion or discrimination of people with physical or mental challenges. As part of postcolonial studies, these relationships are captured in intercultural theology. At the same time, the proceedings of the Christian aid research are made available in foreign contexts by disabled researchers or concerning a target group of people with physical or mental challenge. Because the life worlds of people with and without physical or mental limitations are in constant motion due to social, political and environmental changes, this list cannot be conclusive.

Normality and otherness – Research on Normalism

Disability Studies (DS) negotiate aesthetic and social discourses that move between the categories “normality” and “abnormality, deviation” (Schildmann 2009: 204-205). The definition of these social parameters is dependent on culture and environment. In the European social environment, a visual impairment is less sanctioned, in the Asian contexts, for example, an aesthetic deviation is more sanctioned as mobility impairment (for general classification see Cloerkes 2007: 124-125). Such categories define the terms “normality” and “deviation”, they are framed by the sociological categories of discrimination, exclusion and rejection. The power flow in social reactions is always directed against the supposedly weaker, but this may vary, as the definition of “normality” and “abnormality” is in flux. Inclusion, as currently being discussed, seeks to broaden the perspective on “normality” by extending the standard notions of “norm” and “normality” to people with physical or mental limitations. Accessibility to buildings and the Internet will bring about the participation and presence of previously excluded people not getting a chance to contribute to the social life of a society.

Expanded “Normality”

In the context of public perception and given the active exchange of life experiences by people with and without physical or mental limitations, the understanding of “normality” or “norm” expands. At the same time, there is a meeting place of the life worlds of people with and without physical or mental restrictions, which reduces the fear of contact and prejudices. However, one must not forget to say that ideological fears, such as racism, nationalism or Ableism (hatred of disabled people) are also (un)consciously stoked. Migrants, those living with state help, unemployed lone parents, or sexually same-sex-oriented people with physical or mental disabilities are the main causes of such fears. These groups of people represent social diversity and touch those whose ideological orientation targets a society that does not allow for pluralism.

Transcultural-transnational aspects Disability Studies

A look into the transcultural perception of disability and the disabled raises the question of universals. Disability, as a universal phenomenon has been and will be socially sanctioned or stigmatized everywhere and at all times due to the fact of “Otherness” that reminds humans that they at all times and stakes could become part.

Universals of transcultural encounter “Disability”

In addition to the external physical sanctioning, as expressed in structural obstacles or lack of resources, goes the internal social sanctioning, ranging from ignorance, Ableism to euthanasia. Historically, Plato (here de polis) and Aristotle are approached here by their social application of killing newborns with physical or mental damage. Those were denied a “soul”, in the sense of the non-mortal essence of humans; they were considered lifeless or worthless. In later social Darwinism, this is again taken up. The philosophical idea behind is Utilitarism, the idea of ​​usefulness, for both the individual himself as well as for the collective that is the society. A social being, according to the conclusion of Plato, which is not consistently functional, must be taken off a society or in other words, a society must get rid of his “useless” participants. In consequence, the selection goes pre-birth if there is a risk for the mother or the deficits of an unborn is known (abortion, infanticide). In Brave New World (1932, Aldous Huxley) this utopia is written down. At the end of the 20th century, bioethicist Peter Singer puts it in a nutshell when he calls for abortion, early pre-natal diagnosis and the pre-selection of human characteristics as a necessary and responsible way of planning society. In his opinion, this protects future generations from unnecessary costs and builds societies that can meet their needs. In contrast to this utilitarian approach, there has been an inclusivist movement that seeks to integrate and empower people with physical or mental disabilities. It is tragically evident that the physical and mental damage resulting from war traumas (World War I and WWII) brought with it the need for rehabilitation and, thus (re)integration. At the same time, these guidelines limited the ability of people with physical or mental disabilities to recover lost abilities. The “normal” was the standard and stigmatized those affected to re-access the life worlds of the “normal”. The stigmatization as “others” became the basis of all thinking and acting about people with physical or mental limitations. The formation of one’s own life worlds, ways of life and interfaces to other living realities are not taken into account, encouraged or desired in this approach. The driving force is health care, which, in direct collaboration with the world of work, reduces participation in the community in terms of employability and rehabilitation, preparation and the introduction back into it. Remaining social niches such as art, humanities or creative life forms are reserved for only a few people with physical or mental limitations and are rarely financially attractive.

Social Aspects – Occupational Inclusion

Social sanctions must be consciously and purposefully overcome by the community. The political fight against Ableism (disability hostility) is a laborious and persistent urge for inclusion and shifting the perception of “normality” towards the inclusion of people with physical and mental challenges. The social limits are reached where the community has to guarantee public security and service. Thus, certain safety-related professions (e.g., police service, fire service readiness, and emergency services) remain closed to people with certain physical and mental limitations, as far as they cannot offset their restrictions. Only a subsequent disability allows participation e.g. office work. Physical fitness plays an important role here. However, as these professions require an exceptional level of ability, which is already demonstrated by the qualifications in the job (e.g. physical and mental abilities), they do not represent the social “norm” of the professional world.

Intercultural Christian aid – Pedagogy as Inclusion

In the encounter with foreign or other cultures, the position of the actor is of no minor importance. In the colonial era, the Western Christian actor was the initiator and financially controlling center for the processes of intercultural encounter. Due to militarily supported financial superiority, the locals or local actors were controlled. This is illustrated by the example of Ernst Jakob and Hedwig Christoffel, as they sought to help visually impaired people in East Anatolia, first in 1904-1907 in Sivas, from 1908-1923 in Malatya and later in Tabriz and Isfahan (Thüne 2007: 31, 66). Although they were destitute, in prayer and public presentation they began to proclaim their idea of ​​an orphanage for visually impaired girls in eastern Anatolia. They were able to build on their three years of educational experience in orphanage work in this area. Since several Christian aid agencies had focused on this type of aid, the combination of education and care was nothing new, but the focus on people with visual impairments. Previous attempts on orphaned visually impaired girls are found in the China-oriented Hildesheimer Blindemission founded by Luise Cooper (*1849-†1931) in 1890 (Ortmann 2017:13). The focus on people with visual impairment has to do with the development of Braille (1825) and the perception of the ability of education. Before they were stigmatized by being ineducable or capable of learning, like most people with a disability.

Historical Review – Christian Aid in the Orient

In the 19th century the main players of Christian aid in the Orient became

  • the ABCFM (American Board of Christian Foreign Mission),
  • the BFBS (British and Foreign Bible Society),
  • the German Orient Mission (Dr. Johannes Lepsius, *1858- †1926; DOM from 1916 LDOM),
  • and the German Hülfsbund for Christian works of love in the Orient (Ernst Lohmann, *1860-†1936) presented in Baumann (2007).

They are preceded by the Syrian orphanage (Fam. Schneller) in Jerusalem with its offshoots from the sixties of the 19th century. Striking in all these approaches is the focus on children in a state of need of help or worse emergency (loss of parents or the nuclear family). To care for those is a foundational deeply political mission of the state (here the Ottoman Empire). The Western perspective was on only the lack of government intervention. It must be assumed that the Christian motivation was aimed at turning towards the faith model of the Western development workers. At this point post-colonialist aspects come to the fore, since the military interventions of the German Reich were suitable to not only place financial but also personnel forces in the Ottoman Empire. The Anglophone, American, and British Ecclesiastical Development Aid had made a similar experience since the beginning of the nineteenth century with the governments of the Ottoman Empire. The above-mentioned institutions and organizations had concentrated on the entire Ottoman Empire and met in the course of their activities on the major ethnic groups of the Balkans and Eastern Anatolia. From this period come ethnographic studies of the large “Kurdish” ethnic groups. Today these are Kurmanji (Northern Kurdish), Sorani (Central or South Kurdish), Behdeni, and the Kermānshāh dialects. The area extends from eastern Turkey, western Iran to northern Iraq. Christoffe such, had focused into the ethnic groups of eastern Anatolia. The Armenians, the Aramaeans, the Zaza and the Kurmanji speakers, however, they were only able to focus on Turkish and Armenian due to their specialization in visually restricted orphans. Their developed sign languages ​​have significantly contributed to the breakthrough in the perception and inclusion of this group of people. Despite many setbacks by the two world wars, for example in Iran, a care for these social groups has developed that allows participation at various social levels. This shown for example, the film The Colors of Paradise (1999) by Majiid Majiidi. Also in today’s Turkey, a welfare apparatus has evolved, evidently in Seeing Is not Everything: Living Blind in Turkey at AlJazeera World [https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2015/10/turkey- blind-151021071833072.html] by Eylem Kaftan. The documentation shows four lifestyles of visually impaired people from Istanbul. This must not deceive the fact that the social possibilities are far from being creatively exploited in order to perceive people with physical or mental limitations as a full social counterpart nor even to be inclusive-minded.

Inclusion – Diversity and Unity in Diversity

At this point, it is helpful to understand the concept of inclusion. Inclusion, according to today’s perception, replaces or absorbs the thoughts of participation and integration. The paradigm shift is that society does not “attract” or “absorb” people, so to speak, but that society eliminates all spatial, social or ideological barriers to allow all members all options. Therefore, it’s not an exclusive-centralist approach (incoming) but an inclusive-petal (outgoing) that opens up to the already existing social structure. From a missiological point of view, the need is on a theological-petal approach that takes diversity of humans and diversity of church members as the basis for implementing the creative physical and ideological capabilities of the Kingdom of God on this earth. The motto of this inclusion vision is “unity in diversity”. At the global level, we must emphasize the creative side of God, who created people with physical and mental challenges of all kinds as well as photo models or athletes. Sexual orientation, gender or even race, geographical home and physical manifestation are due to the diversity of creation. In this regard, self- or foreign mutilation, changes by external factors such as environmental toxins, birth restrictions or gene defects are to be evaluated. In particular, since a direct intervention by the transcendence into the creation processes is the absolute exception. Creational theology based on the thermodynamic principles is here referred to a new order of creation (Mt 24-25 and Rev 21-22). Thus, although the power and energy emission performs an unpleasant picture of the future, it is not the genetic or physical or mental deficite of humans that must be hold responsible for that. Inclusion in this sense brings to fruition the diversity – the diversity – of creation and thus of potential church members. Newbigin summed this up for the Church in regard to people with physical and mental challenges in which he concluded: Without the handicapped, the Church is not complete (1979).

Inclusive Hermeneutics – Weakness, Unity, Strength

An inclusive hermeneutics of Disability Missiology should not succumb to paternalistic thinking. The Hermeneutic Approaches of Disability Theology are all lacking a transcultural perspective. For example

·  Newbigin (1979), proclaims a global Church with Disabled People (participation approach).

· Eiesland (1994), the incarnation of Jesus of Nazareth describes the condescension of God in weakness by the image of humans with physical or mental challenges, in incarnation God hindered himself and thus became The disabled God (participation approach).

·  Bach (2006) emphasizes the church’s responsibility to address all strata of society and not to paternalistically fall for people with physical and mental challenges, but to be open to life encounters that include deviations from physical or aesthetic beliefs (solidarity approach).

·  Reynolds (2008), a hermeneutics of creation that reflects the likeness of all people and emphasizes the diversity of social life forms (solidarity and participation approach).

·  Creamer (2009), a theology of liminality in solidarity, while retaining the peculiarities of disabilities and people with physical and mental challenges (solidarity and participation approach).

·  Yong (2011), a hermeneutics of spiritual guidance by the Holy Spirit that indicates the diversity and the creative possibilities of the Church,

In Disability Missiology Conner (2018) has recently presented a draft that closes this gap. Nonetheless, all attempts to reduce divine omnipotence to weakness based on the symbol on the cross or in the incarnation of the Messiah Jesus of Nazareth remain. Weakness is understood as the strength and inversion of secular values ​​and ideas. The suspicion remains, however, that “disability” and people with physical or mental limitations are reduced to their “weakness”. There is also a suspicion that pre-fabricated social templates are being adopted within the framework of the above-mentioned medical, social and cultural models, even by researchers who themselves have a limitation or are parents of children with a limitation. The dilemma is that these approaches address the perfection of non-disabled and design an anthropocentric image of God. Both principles are not reflecting the reality of human weakness by illness, physical or mental brokenness or the dangers of live (catastrophes, accidents). The anthropocentric interpretation leaves no room for a theology of surprise, which expects revelatory perceptions by the divine power.

Inclusivist Hermeneutics – God-Human Relationship

A proposal to bridge the divide between the lives of people with and without physical and mental challenges, while retaining the specific characteristics and needs in these environments, requires the intervention of those needing support to be included. In other words physically challenged people are seldom able to build ramps or elevation tools to guarantee participation in social activities. On the one hand, there are the construction issues and the design of the community life, so that as many different life forms as possible can participate. This includes sexual or gender diversity, which is also part of the life forms of people with physical and mental challenges. In the center of an inclusive hermeneutics are

  • the critical examination of the biblical-inherent discriminating ideas about people with physical and mental challenges,
  • the aesthetic ideals of physical perfection (e.g. happiness, beauty, life fulfillment) and
  • the salvation and healing realities of a messianic kingdom of God eschatology.

The creaturely conception of “disability” as a creation-as-desired by the Creator, related space of relationship is fundamental to such contemplation. Exegetical and hermeneutical aspects have to be weighed against each other and worked out with regard to a holistic perspective on “disability” in regard to human diversity represented in the global Church.

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