Bible Translation as Science

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Eberhard Werner

Content

Abstract. 1

Introduction. 1

The Science of Bible Translation. 1

Bible Translation: Introspection and Extrospection. 3

Internal evidence in Bible translation. 3

Ecclesiastical codex – internal and external functions. 4

Outer evidence of Bible translation as science. 5

Bible Translation: Translation Studies. 5

Models and principles of communication and translation. 5

History and the incarnational Translation principle. 6

The Mandate for Bible Translation as a Science. 7

Turkish: A Short History of Turkish Bible Translations. 8

Future Prospects. 9

Summary. 10

References. 10

 

Abstract

The science of Bible translation develops out of Bible sciences and combines research from the science of translation, anthropology, linguistics, social sciences, and other disciplines. A growing group of scholars is interested to combine these disciplines for the good of Bible translation efforts. The historical development of Bible translation starting shortly after the establishment of the Church and focusing on big language groups moved toward an own movement in the twentieth century, now addressing smaller ethnicities and language groups. Its interdisciplinarity and professionality made it to a global movement reaching out to ethnicities, as well as small social units. The globally gained linguistic, translational, and social experience is increasingly noticed by computational linguistics, neurolinguistics, and modern communication sciences. Exemplary the history of the Turkish Bible translation is included, which reflects a more recent translation attempt.

Keywords

Bible translation – Linguistics – Translation science – Missiology – Bible translation movement – Computational translation – Social media – Translation theory – Turkish Bible translations – Turkish

Introduction

The subject of Bible translation covers the entire process of translating the Bible, that is, (1) the communicational procedure during the translating; (2) the product itself, for example, the King James Version (1611), Good News Bible (1976), and New Living Translation (1996); and (3) the function of the translation, with reference to a newly established and promising science that addresses interdisciplinarity, political influences, new translation versus revision, and other similar issues. This tripartition of communication systems was introduced into translation theory by the American linguist James Holmes ([1972] 1988; see also Israeli linguist Gideon Toury 1995, pp. 9–14). When speaking of Bible translation, one may refer to any or all of these concepts.

The Science of Bible Translation

The placing of the science of Bible translation under the heading of the science of translation, which is located under the branch of applied linguistics (more specifically pragmatics), is a recent development (German translation theorists Reiss and Vermeer 1991, p. 1). Translations of the Bible serve as a foundation for personal devotions, Church liturgy, exegesis, hermeneutics, practical theology, and textual criticism of ancient literature, bringing forth a variety of understandings and disciplines in biblical studies. Biblical studies based on a Bible translation as a product necessarily influence what is perceived as theology and missiology by the global and local Church (glocal effect).

Differing from this use of the Bible, the science of Bible translation has not yet been fully appreciated in theological and missiological teaching and practice as an emerging branch of academic work (see German theologian Werner 2011). A few exceptions to this situation may be noted, for example, the writings of Scottish missiologist Andrew Walls ( 1990, 2005) and American theologian Lamin Sanneh ( 1992). However, the influence of Bible translation as a science becomes apparent in the recognition of the continuous “Century of Bible translation” as the current epoch in missiology has been called by Bible translators Harry Orlinsky (confirmed the authenticity of the Dead Sea Scrolls) and Good News Bible translator Robert Bratcher (Orlinsky and Bratcher 1991). The academic significance of Bible translation is realized in works like The Cambridge History of the Bible (Ackroyd et al. 1965), A History of Bible Translation and the North American Contribution by Orlinsky and Bratcher ( 1991), and A History of Bible Translation edited by American Bible Society translator Philip Noss ( 2007, pp. 1–25).

The science of Bible translation represents a unique interdisciplinary approach, integrating a variety of disciplines that contribute to the translation process, including linguistics, anthropology, theology, missiology, social sciences, and psychology, as well as cognitive and communication sciences. This demonstrates the multifaceted scope of research involved and the scientific potential of this discipline as an interface among a number of disciplines.

Bible translation effectively contributes to the dynamic growth and development of the global Church through new translations for non-literate or non-Christian cultures as well as through revisions and audience-specific new translations for cultures with existing Bible translations. The orientation of Bible translation toward mother-tongue and homogenous ethnic units, which are closely interrelated, contextualizes the Bible in an increasing number of cultures and cultural units, hence resulting in an ongoing proliferation of Bible translations. Both mother-tongue and homogenous ethnic-unit orientations were introduced by the Indian born missiologist Donald McGavran in the 1960s ([1955] 1968) and later expanded upon by London Centre of South East Asian Studies-based Susan Conway (2002). These approaches were implemented in Bible translation by the American linguist and translation scholar Eugene Nida (1960, 1965). Although the homogenous unity principle is criticized by South African missiologist David Bosch ( 1991, pp. 464–66) who calls it racially motivated, it still forms the best model for the outreach of the Church as summed up by Australian missiologist Michael Frost and South African theologian Alan Hirsch (Frost and Hirsch 2004, pp. 51–52). The combination of both mother-tongue and homogeneous-unity approaches serves as a foundation for the establishment and encouragement of culturally sensitive Churches. However, the focus on microcultures and smaller linguistic units has provoked argument about threatening the Church’s unity because of its lack of a unique liturgical text, as had previously been the case with the Vulgate for the Roman Catholic Church and the King James Version for English-speaking Protestants. As a result of this tendency, ongoing debates frequently arise regarding the “right,” “authorized,” or “inspired” Bible translation as shown by Orlinsky and Bratcher (1991).

The mother-tongue approach and the linguistic adoption of the biblical text for microcultures have proven to be essential for the enculturation of the biblical message in both first translations and revisions. A good historical example is the replacement of the principle of accommodation in the Jesuits’ missionary development practices during the Catholic Counter-Reformation in the 16–17 c. by the methods of contextualization that took hold during the modern development movement of the 19 c. (American Church Historian Latourette 1937, p. xv). This move demonstrates the risk of colonialism or misuse of power as a political factor in Bible translation caused by forms of enculturation that are not directly derived from the indigenous people group. This can be expected mainly with regard to ideological, political, and sociological issues such as minority, racial, and gender discrimination. The modern Church needs to argue against such tendencies and to partner closely and fully with the ethnicities that it is seeking to serve through translation.

Bible Translation: Introspection and Extrospection

The science of Bible translation may be considered through both introspection and extrospection, that is, from an inner and an outer perspective. The former refers to evidence from Bible translation itself, while the latter refers to translation evidence provided by science in general, demonstrating its academic importance. Considering this division, we must keep in mind that the Bible as divine revelation implies both a Christ-centric and an anthropocentric approach. Whereas the first tends toward the theological and missiological, hence internal evidence as in biblical studies, the latter points to external evidence, which is the approach of human understanding of divine communication that is concerned with Bible translation from the outside, as expressed in linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, the sciences of communication and translation, and other human sciences.

Internal evidence in Bible translation

Internal evidence is that evidence given by the Bible itself as an ancient masterpiece of literary genres, including prose, poetry, and narration, among others, and representing a genre in itself because of its uniqueness as a literary work. It was written by more than 20 authors over a period of more than 1000 years. The Bible itself asserts the need for its translation on the basis of

(1) the theological principles of internal Bible translation activities,

(2) the requirement of inspiration, and

(3) the continuous line of the history of salvation as a global message to humanity.

First, the Bible contains rich evidence about translation activities (e.g., Gen 42:23; 2 Kgs 18:26–28; Ezek 4:7, 18; Dan 5:6–7). Second, the Bible asserts its inspiration (Job 32:8; Eccl 4:12; 2 Tim 3:16; 2 Pet 1:21) and authorization by a divine author (Isa 55:11; Jer 1:12; John 5:24; Rev. 3:8; 22:18–20). Third, the Bible contains a unique history of salvation (Ger. Heilsgeschichte), representing the communicative act of covenant theology linking God and humankind (e.g., Noah in Gen 9:9–17, Abraham in Gen 15:18, David in 2 Sam 7, and the Church in Gal 3:15–29). This is expressed in the concept of the kingdom of God or covenant theology, which motivates the translation task (e.g., the Jewish Diaspora as motivation for the Septuagint (LXX) translations). Such theological understandings led subsequent generations of Bible readers to translate the Hebrew Bible together with the New Testament. One early example of this move was the Bible translated into Latin by Jerome, which contained both Old (OT) and New Testament (NT). The incarnation principle represents a further theological basis for Bible translation. The duality of the spiritual and material world is highlighted best in the person of the Messiah as seen most clearly in the temptation of Christ in Matthew 4:1–11. Bible translation, as the manifestation of the written Word of God as the Bible, intermediates between the spiritual concepts of inspiration and salvation history.

The concepts presented above designate the Bible as sacred literature, similarly to the Qur’an or the Vedas, by the fact that information from and about the metaphysical or transcendental sphere is passed on to human beings by forward- and backward-directed prophecies and becomes reality within them. The creation story (Gen 1–2), the promise of the Messiah (2 Sam 7:8–16; Matt 1:1), and the introduction of the Gospel of John (1:1–4) are examples of this transmission of information (a fact which only counts for the faithful).

Lack of the original manuscripts prevents us from acquiring straightforward insight into the original divine language or communication principles employed by God with the Hebrew Bible patriarchs and prophets or that Jesus used with his apostles. The Hebrew Bible used Hebrew and, in part, Aramaic (2 Kgs 18:26; Isa 36:11; Jer 10:11; Dan 2:4–7, 28; Ezra 4:8–6:18; 7:12–26), while the NT was recorded in koine Greek, to transmit the divine information from generation to generation.

The languages of daily life were used to write down divine revelations given directly by speech to people (“I am your God,” Exod 3:6; Ezek 34:31), in visions (Ezek 8:5), and in dreams (Gen 40:16). Divine revelation was also given indirectly, for example, through prophets (“the Lord said to me,” Jer 11:6; Heb 1: 1–2), through Scripture (Exod 32:16), or by messengers (Gen 16:9), apostles (1 Pet 1:1), or ordinary human beings (John 4:39).

Ecclesiastical Codex – internal and external Functions

The Bible fulfills both external and internal functions for the Church. Externally, it legitimizes authority granted to the Church by the oral and written traditions about the Messiah whose words and deeds Christians understand to be summarized in the NT. Political, social, and other outward activities of the Church or disciples are warranted by this “constitutional” document. Internally, the whole Bible, including the Hebrew Bible and the NT, represents canonical law for the Church. Therein the structural and ethical codex of the Church is implied, requiring interpretation by the readers. That is why the Church can be seen as constituting the living outcome of the physically transferred, thus translated, divine word represented by the Bible.

Humankind, the Church would assert, is responsible to act within the framework provided by the Bible, interpreted by the Holy Spirit who guards the processes that lead to internal strengthening of the Church, for example, by granting vitality and growth and by providing protection from outside influences such as heresy and radicalism. Even though Bible translators do their best in translation, they and the Church (i.e., the readers) must trust the efficacy of the Holy Spirit – that the Holy Spirit will preserve the translated Scripture as canon and codex in relation to its original meaning and divine intention.

Within this context, the science of Bible translation is asked to take active responsibility for transferring the life and deeds of its divine object from one cultural linguistic background to another, without losing spiritual or implicit information (see Matt 28:18–20, Luke 10:3, and John 20:21). The intuitive work of Bible translation is directed by prayer from outside the human sphere, resulting in human-mediated divine revelation.

Outer evidence of Bible translation as science

As is evident, Bible translation is part of a communicative process, containing a message for communication. The Bible belongs to a category of texts that first came from oral traditions and were later transcribed in written documents. Bible translation is restricted to human language due to the lack of a metalanguage which would be necessary for an objective reflection of human communication, as Wierzbicka calls it (1996, p. 6). Since such a linguistic tool is outside human capacity, the biblical text, its context, and its implications are to be neutrally passed on from language to language. Yet the metaphysical and divine information is transferred in human languages. This contrasts with the Islamic concept of revelation called “inlibration” (“being in a book”) wherein the divine word is directly revealed in Arabic in a written and manifested form from above and therefore does not allow for translation.

Bible Translation: Translation Studies

Translation in general is a cross-cultural, ethnological, social, cognitive, and functional human endeavor, to which are added theological and missiological considerations in the case of Bible translation. It is this close link to translation studies that drives the science of Bible translation to concentrate on the development of translation theories and research paradigms and to emphasize principles and methods for training translators. Looking at it another way, the expertise gained from the history and global experience of Bible translation has contributed significantly to translation studies as recognized by American linguist Eugene Nida and American theologian Charles Taber (Nida and Taber 1969) and American German study scholar Edwin Gentzler (2001). Questions about genre, co-text, context, cohesion, and discourse analysis of texts are fundamental to research in either secular or sacred literature in both oral and written text.

Models and principles of communication and translation

Bible translation makes use of or can be credited with emerging models of communication and translation used by Bible translators. One attitude in this context is the literal model, which is found as far back as the beginning of translation. Defended by American missiologist Charles Turner (2001), this model is represented by the very formal literal rendering of the Darby Bible in 1997. However, this approach’s lack of semantic synonymy and rejection of any concordant way of proceeding led to the development of the dynamic equivalent approach. This translation theory was introduced by Nida (1964), it was extensively expanded to Bible translation with Taber (Nida and Taber 1969), and it was further developed into functional equivalence with Jan de Waard (Waard and Nida 1986). The Good News Bible was edited in light of this new model (Nida 1976). The scope of equivalence within the science of Bible translation was extended and publicized by American Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL) translators John Beekman and John Callow (1974) and Mildred Larson (1984).

Since the 1970s, the shortcomings of “equivalence” have been criticized, given that it can never truly be reached in translation and cannot be measured in a convincing way. This led to the skopos approach and derivative functional models carried out by German translation science scholars Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer (1991) and Christiane Nord (2003, 2004). Nord as linguist translator, together with German NT theologian Klaus Berger, translated the NT into German (Berger and Nord 1999), using her functional approach. This model has also become popular in South Africa where it has been used to translate the Scriptures into Afrikaans (South African theologian van der Merwe 2003).

The imbalance of translation models toward linguistics, and the rediscovery of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis in translation theory, gave rise to cultural models (Katan 1999). Here the respect of the intercultural and cross-cultural approaches of Bible translation came into focus as demonstrated by Robert Bascom ( 2003) and Nida’s ( 1990) earlier three-culture pattern. Other concepts relating to the work of English communication theorist Denis McQuail ( 2007) and Denmark communication specialist Viggo Søgaard (1993) are found in mass communication models, as well as relevance theory representing a cognitive framework for Bible translation based on the insights of French anthropologist Dan Sperber and the English linguist Deirdre Wilson (Sperber and Wilson 1995) and introduced for translation by German Bible translator Ernst-August Gutt (2000).

A recent trend in Bible translation points to the adaptation of mixed translation models based on different theories, singling out basic constituents and adjusting them in theoretical reference frames. English translation specialist Peter Newmark (1988), W. K. Winckler and Christo van der Merwe (1993), American United Bible Societies consultant Timothy Wilt (2003), and American Bible translator Ernst Wendland (2006, 2008) display this. The training of Bible translators as cultural mediators, multicultural and intuitive interpreters, and as exegetes requires a flexible application of these models of communication and translation in Bible translation projects. The translator’s ethical responsibility is not only with respect to the divine text and the divine source behind the text but also to the profession of translation as English-Finnish linguist and translation expert Andrew Chesterman (2001), Christiane Nord (2004), and German translation scientist Paul Kussmaul (2007) remind us. This goes together with the commissioner, that is, the Church and sponsoring Christian translation organizations, as well as the audience of readers/ hearers and their mother-tongue culture.

History and the incarnational Translation principle

Instrumentalized translation studies (Nord 2001, pp. 50–52), as a foundation to intercultural communication, have their roots in ancient high cultures such as Pharaonic Egypt, the Mesopotamian cultures, Chinese culture, and Sumerians, conglomerating many cultures under its roof as shown by English ancient languages scholar Nicholas Ostler (2006), Henry Rogers (2005), and Belgian translation specialist André Lefevre (1998). Passing along important information from one language or cultural system to another existed in the very cradle of human society.

The history of Bible translation as we know it started around 250 bce with the translation of the Jewish Scriptures (Hebrew Bible) into Greek, resulting in a text known as the Septuagint (LXX). This text served both those Jews whose primary language was Greek and the ethnically diverse early Christian Church (see Acts 2:7–11 for evidence of this diversity). Not long after Jesus’s crucifixion, it became important to the Christian community to translate and make a record of the oral traditions circulating about the life, ministry, and teachings of Jesus. This was done in the lingua franca of the day, koine Greek. The theological centrality of the incarnation to the NT writings that were being recorded and shared by the Church at this time, comprises an incarnational translation principle and became a standard theological understanding for Christians to the present day. Such includes, e.g., the Word becoming flesh (John 1:1–5, 15–16), the Son’s leaving his place of divine privilege in order to give life (his “condescension,” John 6:33–35), and Christ’s self-emptying (kenosis, Phil 2:7) – would

Through the interfacing of translation studies with Bible translation, the concepts of fidelity, adaptiveness, and intelligibility became points of reference in both disciplines as is clear from Nida and Taber (1969) and Edwin Gentzler (2001). Additionally, following Walls (2006) and Werner (2011), Bible translation developed and encouraged active methods for the global spread of Christian divine communication and thus accrued an immense field of translational experience. This has served to substantiate the production of new Bible translations for non-Christians, nonliterates, the handicapped, and other special audiences, together with revisions of old versions for contemporary audiences (e.g., King James Version > NKJV, New King James Version; ASV, American Standard Version > Revise Standard Version, RSV > New Revised Standard Version, NRSV).

The history of Bible translation also reveals that before the foundation of textual criticism, the Roman Catholic Church established an authorized liturgical text named the Vulgate (“vernacular”), with which Bible translation has had to cope in past centuries. The need for establishing a base Bible text (German Grundtext) led to the development of the UBS Greek New Testament (most recently 28th ed. 2012) and the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (BHS 4th ed.). These critical texts are an important part of the beginning of the modern era of Bible translation. Through the establishment of these texts, the static liturgical versions have become secondary for translation because current biblical studies reference Greek New Testament (GNT) and BHS and the still in process, Biblia Hebraica Quinta (BHQ). The incarnational translation principle implemented by the early Church opens the way both to contextualized and communicative Bible translations as well as to literal rendering, but is always focusing on the actually spoken idiom of people groups or microcultures.

The Mandate for Bible Translation as a Science

The internal and external evidence given by the tripartite split of Bible translation as a process, a product, and a scientific function, together with the incarnational translation principle and its interdisciplinary approach, establishes the science of Bible translation as an epistemological and intuitive discipline. The hermeneutical epistemological spiral introduced by the French philosopher Paul Ricoeur (1984–1988) and the German scholar Hans-Georg Gadamer (1989), used in theology as well as in other sciences, serves Bible translation to describe communication processes in a translation project. Starting with a variety of possible translation methods, the relationship between the project manager as a client vis-à-vis the Bible translator and the original audience vis-à-vis the target group, that is, the reader or hearer, leads to reciprocal influence based on linguistic, cultural, and sociological factors. Hence, ownership of a Bible translation as a product moves from the initiator to the target group, e.g., crowdsourced Internet translation projects such as the German Volxbibel.

As the science of Bible translation has evolved, it has clarified its historical basis and refined its epistemological foundation. It has also initiated a clearer position about its placement in pragmatics and the role and training of the Bible translator. This science likewise has recognized the function of the Bible as sacred literature and the need for close interdisciplinary cooperation with translation studies and other supporting disciplines. Such basics support its progressive continuance within science, as well as bearing fruit for the Church globally by relating to the sending act of Jesus (Matt 28:18–20).

We take now a short digression to the history of Turkish Bible translations. Christianity was early on established in the region of today Turkey. Bible translation started with the early Church, but due to the invasion of the Turkish Seljuks and the spread of Islam, Turkey became the center of the Muslim-Christian encounter. The history of Turkish Bible translations reflects this well and as such is an indicator of the Bible translation movement.

Turkish: A Short History of Turkish Bible Translations

Turkish is an Altaic-Turkic language for which the earliest attested records date back to 552 ce and refer to the Kök Türkler(i) (“Heavenly Türks”). Turkic languages, formerly known as Turk Tataric, with a total of 150 million speakers, are the most recently arrived and youngest family in the Near and Middle East. The Turkish language is spoken by about 70 million people. The language of the Seljuk peoples, disseminated by the Seljuk Empire, was written with Arabic letters and by the 11 c. had established its written orthographic standard. Following the Seljuk era, other Turkic people swept into Anatolia during the “Mongol invasions” from the 12 to 14 c. (Busse 1988, pp. 86–87). In Ottoman times (1299–1923), Persian, Arabic, Greek, and Armenian loanwords permeated the Turkish language (Ostler 2006, p. 101). After the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, and because of the policies of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, a team of international linguists developed a Latin alphabet with 12 special characters for Turkish. A specialized language institution named Türk Dil Kurumu was set up and still operates today to renew and cleanse Turkish of all loanwords and foreign grammatical components (Myers-Scotton 2006, p. 214).

Bible translation into Turkish started in the 16 c. with Le’ali’s (Ahmed ibn Musafa, d. 1563; Gundert 1977) Psalms, followed in the 17 c. with work by Yahya bin ‘Ishak who was also called Haki. His translation in Ottoman Turkish written with Arabic characters was finished in 1661 but was never published. The ambassador from Holland, Levin Warner, entrusted Albertus (Wojciech) Bobowski, a former Polish slave of the Tartar Ottomans known as Ali Bey, with the task of doing another translation of the Bible (1662–1966). The Bible was finished in 1664 and the MS was taken to Holland in 1666. Haki’s and Ali Bey’s translations remained unpublished at Leiden University Library until 1814 when Baron von Dietz began revising Ali Bey’s manuscript. This work was finished by Prof. Jean Daniel Kieffer and was published by BFBS in Paris in 1819; 5000 copies of Ali Bey’s NT were printed. This was followed by the entire Bible in 1827. Zacharias the Athonite and Seraphim of Pisidia, also working in the 18 c., translated catechisms, the Psalms, and other religious texts into the Turkish dialect of Karamanlidika and published them in Greek characters with the aim of teaching the doctrine of the Orthodox Church and the religious duties of an Orthodox Christian to the Turkish-speaking Christians of Asia Minor. Further revisions of Ali Bey’s translation were done in 1853 by Turabi Efendi and in 1857 by Sir James William Redhouse, who is famous for his Turkish and English Lexicon (1890). Redhouse’s NT (1857) was published by BFBS, but according to Findley (1979, 583), it did not come into wide use because of its idiomatic style.

Shortly after, in 1866, William G. Schauffler from the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABFCM) translated and produced a NT that some consider a masterpiece of elegant Ottoman Turkish and parts of the Hebrew Bible (Richter 2006, p. 233). During 1873–1878, Ali Bey’s work was revised by a committee and received the government’s approval. It was called Kitab-ı Mukaddes (“Holy Book”). A rendering and harmonization of this standard text for the Christian Churches of the Ottoman Empire into Greek, Arabic, and Armenian characters was finished as three independent translations in 1901 and is called the unified Ottoman-Greco-Armeno-Turkish text (Riggs 1940, p. 245).

Starting in 1961, evangelical movements led to new Bible translations into Turkish (conclusive list in Privratsky 2010). These new translations were mainly guided by a mix of conservative and dynamic equivalent translation principles. They used Tanrı and not Allah as the name of God, to be distinctive from the Kitab-ı Mukaddes and Islamic tradition. Portions of the NT employing dynamic equivalence translation principles were published in 1978 named Wonders of Jesus and Teachings of Jesus. Modern translations of the NT include Müjde (1987), İncil (1989/2008), Kutsal İncil (2003), and the easy to read version, Halk Dilinde İncil (2012). Recently published Bibles include Kutsal Kitap Yeni Çeviri (Holy Book New Translation, BS in Turkey 2001; with DC 2003) and Ekümenik Kutsal Kitap (Ecumenical Holy Book, Haktan Yayıncılık 2007) .

Future Prospects

The science of Bible translation is advancing the computer epoch. Advance in computational translation, linguistics, and neurosciences led to a multiplicity of computer tools that offer the similar view of different Bible translations, others edit translated texts automatically based on dictionaries that are individually prepared, and so-called crowdsourcing offers huge (paid) communities for translation dictionary making, dubbing, and oral-aural products (video, audio, etc.). With it the social media are increasingly used to get linguistic and cultural data from people groups. With these efforts the testing of Bible translation attempts is nowadays done in social media groups. The results are online Bibles or Bible texts that are only digitally published. Away from the written product, an oral-aural orientation makes the Bible “text” available as a video, an audio text, a film, or a clip. Professional films (Jesus film, Magdalena film, etc.) and video clips based on the Bible text can easily be viewed on smartphones or other modern equipment (tablet, projector, etc.). The future will be not the written but the oral-aural “text” that is available easily and everywhere via the Internet.

Summary

Summarizing these arguments, there is strong evidence regarding a mandate for Bible translation for the Church. As a result of this mandate, the worldwide Church accelerates – intentionally or unintentionally – the emerging science of Bible translation by providing a central gateway for divine communication with humanity and by offering an interface between cultures.

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Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a science of translating: With special reference to principles and procedures involved in Bible translating. Leiden: Brill. (TASOT).

Nida, E. A. (1965). Dynamics of church growth. In D. A. McGavran (Ed.), Church growth and Christian mission. New York: Harper and Row.

Nida, E. A. ([1960] 1990). Message and mission: The communication of the Christian faith (Rev. ed.). Preface from Charles Kraft. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, E. A. (Ed.) ([1976] 2004). Good News Bible: The Bible in today’s English version. New York: American Bible Society (formerly called Today’s English Version).

Nida, E. A., & Taber, C. (1969). The theory and practice of translation. New York: United Bible Societies. (TAPOT).

Nord, C. ([1997] 2001). Translating as a purposeful activity: Functionalist approaches explained (Reprint). Manchester: St. Jerome.

Nord, C. (2003). Textanalyse und Übersetzen: Theoretische Grundlagen, Methode und didaktische Anwendung einer übersetzungsrelevanten Textanalyse (3rd ed.). Tuebingen: Julius Groos.

Nord, C. (2004). Loyalität als ethisches Verhalten im Translationsprozess. In: I. Müller (Ed.), Und sie bewegt sich doch… Tanslationswissenschaft in Ost und in West, Festschrift für Heidemarie Salevsky zum 60 Geburtstag (pp. 234–245). Frankfurt: Peter Lang. [Engl.: Nord, C. (2004). Loyality as ethical behaviour in the translational process. In: I. Müller (Ed.), But it does move … Translation science in East and into the West, celebration document for Heidemarie Salevsky for the 60th birthday (pp. 234–245). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.].

Noss, P. A. (2007). A history of Bible translation: Introduction and overview. In P. A. Noss (Ed.), A history of Bible translation (pp. 1–25). Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.

Orlinsky, H. M., & Bratcher, R. G. (1991). A history of Bible translation and the North American contribution. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

Ostler, N. ([2005] 2006). Empires of the word: A language history of the world. New York: Harper.

Privratsky, B. (2010). A history of Turkish Bible translations. Online im Internet: http://​www.​scribd.​com/​doc/​51331567/​A-History-of-Turkish-BIble-Translations-Privratsky-March-2011-v-F. [PDF-Datei] [Stand 10 May 2017].

Reiss, K., & Vermeer, H. J. ([1984] 1991). Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie (2nd ed.). Tuebingen: Niemeyer.

Richter, J. ([1930] 2006). Mission und Evangelisation im Orient (Reprint der 2. Aufl). Nürnberg: VTR. [English: Mission and Evangelisation in the orient (Reprint of the 2nd ed.). Nuremberg: VTR.].

Ricoeur, P. (1984–1988). Time and narrative (3 vols.) (trans: McLaughlin, K. & Pellauer, D.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Riggs, C. T. (1940). The Turkish translations of the Bible. The Moslem world XXX (pp. 236–248). London: Christian Literature Society for India.

Rogers, H. (2005). Writing systems: A linguistic approach. Oxford: Blackwell.

Sanneh, L. ([1989] 1992). Translating the message: The missionary impact on culture (4th ed.). Maryknoll: Orbis.

Søgaard, V. (1993). Media in Church and mission: Communicating the Gospel. Pasadena: William Carey.

Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. ([1986] 1995). Relevance, communication and cognition (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell.

Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies and beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Turner, C. V. (2001). Biblical Bible translating: The biblical basis for Bible translating with an introduction to semantics and applications made to Bible translation principles and problems (2nd ed.). Lafayette: Sovereign Grace.

van der Merwe, C. H. J. (2003). A new translation of the Bible into Afrikaans: A theoretical and practical orientation. Paper presented at UBS TTW, Iguassu Falls (Brazil). (unpublished).

Walls, A. F. (1990). The translation principle in Christian history. In P. C. Stine (Ed.), Bible translation and the spread of the church: The last 200 years, 24–39. Brill: Leiden.

Walls, A. F. (2005). The cross-cultural process in Christian history (3rd ed.). New York: Orbis.

Walls, A. F. (2006). The missionary movement in Christian history: Studies in the transmission of faith. New York: Orbis. 11th printing.

Wendland, E. R. (2006). LiFE-style translating: A workbook for Bible translators. Dallas: SIL International.

Wendland, E. (2008). Contextual frames of reference. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Werner, E. (2011). Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis – Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität. Hamburg: Kovac. [English: Werner, E. (2013). The mandate for Bible translation – Models of communication and translation in theory and practice in regard to the science of Bible translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: http://​www.​sil.​org/​resources/​publications/​entry/​51438 [PDF-File]. Accessed 10 May 2017.

Wierzbicka, A. (1996). Semantics: Primes and universals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Wilt, T. (2003). Bible translation: Frames of reference. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Winckler, W. K., & van der Merwe, C. H. J. (1993). Training tomorrow’s Bible translators: Some theoretical pointers. Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages, 19(19), 41–58.

 

Additional Reading

Shaw, D. E., & Van Engen, C. E. (2003). Communicating gods word in a complex world: God’s truth or hocus pocus? New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

Smalley, W. A. (1991). Translation as mission: Bible translation in the modern missionary movement. In W. R. Shenk (Ed.), The Modern Mission Era: 1792–1992, 1–111. Macon: Mercy.

 

Bible Translations

American Standard Version. ([1901] 1988). The Holy Bible based upon the Hebrew Masoretic text for the OT and upon the Westcott-Hort Greek text for the NT. Oklahoma City: Ellis Enterprises.

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. ([1909] 1990). In R. Kittel (Ed.), in assistance of A. Alt, O. Eißfeldt, & P. Kahle (4th rev. and smaller ed.). Suttgart: German Bible Society. (BHS).

King James Version. ([1611] 2008). With Apocrypha. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

New King James Version. (1982). Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

New Living Translation. ([1996] 2004). The Holy Bible. Wheaton: Tyndale Charitable Trust.

New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. (1961). New testament in 1950. Pennsylvania: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.

Revised Standard Version. ([1946] 1973). The Holy Bible. Authorized revision of the American Standard Version. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. (RSV).

The English Darby Bible [1884/1890]. (1997). Darby, John Nelson. Ontario: Woodside Fellowship of Ontario.

The Greek New Testament. (2004). In K. Aland et al. (Eds.), Stuttgart: United Bible Societies. (GNT).

The New Revised Standard Version. (1989). New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. (NRSV).

Volxbibel. (2007). Online: http://​www.​volxbibel.​de/​html/​promo.​htm. Accessed 28 Apr 2017.

Vulgate. (1983). In R. Weber et al. (Eds.), Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Stuttgart: German Bible Society.

Disability Studies and Bible translation

/in ,

werner [at] forschungsinstitut.net

 

Abstract

This essay is a short introduction to Disability Studies and Bible translation. What is on the first glance not obvious, becomes much clearer when the linguistic and social impact of historic Bible translations is in focus. Not just political correctness but also an Inclusivist rethinking of the church is needed to overcome existing hermeneutics of Ableism or Disableism.

 

 

 

Disability Studies (DS) originates from social studies in the 1960s concurrent with both the gay and feminist liberation movements and Latin American liberation theology. Since then, there has been an increasing awareness of DS in theology, but not so much in missiology (intercultural theology in Germany) or in the Science of Bible translation. Research on, by, and with people with physical or mental impairment is yet to be introduced in these disciplines. Within Disability Studies, the history, the needs (e.g., care, assistance), and the social framework of adults with physical or mental impairment have been investigated. Less so in missiology or Intercultural Theology, where neither Christian parents nor other Christian care providers for children, or those groups that focus on Christian care have been in focus.

In the light of expensive long-term (Bible) translation training, preparation in intercultural-linguistics, costly member care and administrative structures, as well as the high cost of medical or physical aid both on the field and at home, there is an obvious lack of research on DS in missiology. Out of an inclusivist approach, such a need opens up the potential for sending organizations. For one it will help

gathering information about the needs of their staff with physical or mental impairment, as well as
evaluating concerns regarding disability within people groups on the field, in respect of at least ten percent of an ethnicity’s population (12.8% in US, 2017 census; 10% in Germany, 2016 census).
DS emerged out of the social prejudices against people with disabilities (i.e., ableism or disableism), in the form of

discrimination,
isolation, and
the exclusion of disabled persons.
It was implemented by veterans of war with a disability, and those persons with physical or mental impairment, who

had to live in special-care facilities isolated from a normal environment,
were unable to study at universities, or
to manage the needs of daily life (e.g., shopping, cooking, dealing with officials), due to the sheer fact of the inaccessibility of the public realm to them.
In addition, one would add the refusal by officials to listen to the needs of parents of children with impairment, especially regarding education or assisted care at home instead of in special-care homes. Whereas in the US, the outcry against the discrimination against the disabled was regarding the (in)accessibility and (lack of) education, in the UK and Germany, the focus was on seeking/the need for independent assisted daily life. Radical insider movements such as the “cripple movement” (Krüppelbewegung in Germany) were recognized on not just the national, but also the international level (Fandrey 1990). In 2006, the UN chartered the “Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.” The US, the UK, and Germany ratified the convention in 2009; by March 2018 there were 175 ratifications globally (Online see https://www.un.org/).

The terms “participation” and “integration” became keywords of the early days, later replaced by the multifaceted term “inclusion,” expressing an Inclusivist environment on all levels of life such as accessibility, assisted independent living, language, social acceptance, and perception. Historically, terminology of popular Bible translations (e.g., King James Version, Luther Bible) was very influential. Later, when by language shift some terminology was used in colloquial language as terms of abuse, the translation tradition did not adapt to modern Inclusivist language, but became exclusive. Examples such as “cripple,” “idiot,” “invalid,” “lame,” “monster,” etc., have nowadays become ostracized from acceptable usage. However, out of pity or sym- instead of empathy, exclusivist terminology is sometimes still used (un)consciously in Bible translation. For example, the 2017 revision of the Luther Bible still uses einen Lahmen, “a lame [person],” instead of “a paralyzed person” (Matt 4: 24), following the “Lutheran tradition” as a code for revision. One reason for this is the lack of disabled Bible translators, exegetes, and theological hermeneutists, bearing in mind the adage, “Nothing about us, without us.” This parallels the development of gender Inclusivist or Feminist language in the 1980s that resulted in revision in the Luther Bible in 1999 from Weib, which carried then the meaning ”bitch”, to Frau, “woman”.

There are similar demands in Bible translation for political correctness regarding the translation of descriptions of persons with a handicap as well as an Inclusivist perception by the Church. Wynn Kerry was one of the first to address this issue (2001). He gave four recommendations to translators, the most helpful one being to move from generalization to descriptive terminology. Thus “a lame person” may become “a man/woman with a mobility impairment,” and “a blind person” may be expressed as “a person with visual impairment.”  Mark 8:25 reads, “his sight was restored” in most (more literal) Bible translations (so NRSV; cf. Ger. wiederhergestellt). This leaves the audience with the assumption that the healed man’s “blindness” was most likely an impairment caused by illness in later age, since the man’s sight was “restored” (“he saw again,” assuming he saw at one time in life).  In a best-case scenario, the audience will wonder, whether the man was born blind or became blind later in life. This uncertainty would be obvious mainly to sensitive exegetes, who would use Inclusivist language in their rendition. Beyond that, hermeneutics must take into consideration that the Biblical authors reflected their culture-bound perception of disability.

Over more than nineteen centuries, literal translation transporting the NT authors’ perspective on disability led to the exclusion, isolation or, since the 18 c., relegation to special homes, of people with impairment, out of the Church’s mandate of social welfare (Ger. Diakonat). Nowadays, politics force the Church, as a public player, to make possible the inclusion of persons with disabilities on all levels of society as leaders, pastors, and staff, and of course members and interested parties. In this way, hopefully, sympathy out of pity is replaced in the Church by empathy out of equality, thus performing an Inclusivist role in building diversity in the communion of saints (Reynolds 2008).

 

Additional reading: Kerry 2007a, 2007b.

 

References

Fandrey, Walter 1990. Krüppel, Idioten, Irre. Zur Sozialgeschichte behinderter Menschen in Deutschland. Stuttgart: Silberburg-Verlag. [Engl.: Cripples, idiots, lunatics. On the Social History of Disabled People in Germany.].

Reynolds, Thomas E. 2008. Vulnerable Communion: A Theology of Disability and Hospitality. Grand Rapids: BrazosPress.

Wynn, Kerry 2001. Disability in Bible Translation. Bible Translator 52/4, 402-414. New York: UBS.

Wynn, Kerry H. 2007a. Johannine Healings and Otherness of Disability. Perspectives in Religious Studies 34, 61-75.

Wynn, Kerry H. 2007b. The Normate Hermeneutic and Interpretations of Disability within the Yahwistic Narratives, in Avalos, Hector, Melcher, Sarah J. & Schipper, Jeremy (eds.): This Abled Body. Rethinking Disabilities in Biblical Studies, 91-101. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.

 

 

 

Translationese

/in

Eberhard Werner

Abstract

Translationese describes the conscious or unconscious change of the original sense by introducing ideas that are not found in the original. This ranges from changes in content to formal changes.

 

The development of the term “translationese,” or “translatorese,” parallels the progression of translation studies as observed by Helge Nika (1999) and Martin Gellerstam (1986; 1996). However, the phenomenon of an “odd, unnatural language that only appears in translations” (Leman 2009)—or, “the fingerprints that one language leaves on another when a text is translated”—is much older, as Silvia Bernardini and Marco Baroni have suggested (2005, 2). The key to its occurrence is the question of translatability, as Anthony Pym and Horst Turk have argued. Thus, one would not be surprised should an awkward translation be produced, if translation adapts to the “principle of necessary sacrifice” (Pym and Turk 2001, 274). Alluding to the intuitive character of translation, this principle implies that not everything in texts and speech is translatable or interpretable. The impreciseness of language as a central constituent in translation, together with the limited human ability to communicate cross-culturally, bring along the possibility of producing translationese as well as the difficulty of bypassing it.

The concept of translationese bears some of the negative connotations that go hand-in-hand with language styles like “journalese,” “officialese,” and “legalese,” but it differs in significant ways from maltranslation and pseudotranslation according to Henry Fowler (1965) and Andrea Rizzi (2008, 153,155). Its occurrence features universals of translation, such as normalization, simplification, greater explicitness, and an overall bias toward conservation. It may be characterized by a smaller inventory of unique words than the text being translated (the “unique items hypothesis” mentioned by Sonja Tirkkonen-Condit 2002, 208, and Sara Laviosa-Braitwaith 1998, 288–91). With the improvement of translation quality assessment introduced by Katharina Reiss (1971), the language of translation became more obvious, and the subject of translationese appeared soon afterward as a separate “dialect” or the “third code” within a language, as William Frawley observed (1984).

Recently, linguistic scholars have begun questioning the assumption that translated texts can be identified as translations when compared with source texts. Empirical studies using questionnaires and computational statistics and support vector machines seem to reveal that a text can seldom be identified as a translation on the basis of textual evidence (Bernardini and Baroni 2005; 2006). On the other hand, Tiina Puurtinen (2003) and Tirkkonen-Condit (2002, 208) noted that research supports the notion of translationese by identifying fixed sets of lexical, syntactical, and textual markers that only occur in translated texts.

In Bible translation, translationese is characterized by strange, literally translated phrases that arise (a) through borrowing phrases from the biblical languages, Hebrew, Aramaic, and koine Greek, and (b) from semantic oddities caused by a literal concordant approach. Examples from the KJV that likely have equivalent renderings in many languages would be the following: the idiom, “Gird up thy (your) loins” (2 Kgs 4:29); the affirmation, “Verily, verily, I say unto you” (John 1:51); and the introduction to a direct quotation, “John answered, saying…” (Luke 3:16).  When a language is reduced to written form for the first time and becomes a vehicle for translated works, a written style is developed. This form may become the norm for literary works, even though it has an awkward or stilted quality. In the case of first Scripture translations, the language of translation may take on an aura of sanctity that will be a constraint for future translators and writers (Nida and Taber 1969, 100, 124–25; Leman 2009). See also Effability of language.

Intercultural Theology, Missiology and Mission Studies -Observations and Perspectives-

/in

Eberhard Werner

Werner [at] forschungsinstitut.net

 

Content

Missiology and Mission Studies – A Location. 1

Recent Developments in the Church and theological Education. 2

Religious awakening – Environmental Variables. 3

Current Intercultural Theology. 4

The Origins of the Church – Priestly and Prophetic Ministry. 4

Future Prospects. 6

Summary. 7

Bibliography. 8

 

Abstract

“Intercultural Theology” as a relatively new academic discipline deals with interdisciplinary discourses. How it is perceived, what it wants to be and where it is striving to go, points to a broad spectrum of ideas and perspectives. The professional discussion differs from the opinion of many. The very name alone leads many people in a direction that is not even desired in the discipline. A few key points will be discussed here. Ultimately, however, it is a matter of presenting the relationship between missionary studies, missiology, intercultural theology and theology. The different fields of action are closely interlinked, in some cases very interlinked. Which orientations, overlaps and separations can be identified?

Missiology and Mission Studies – A Location

“Missiology” is a term familiarized to theology from the Anglophone world. In 1867 the first official chair was introduced in Edinburgh. It existed only briefly. Nevertheless, Scotland remained an outstanding sending nation of Christian aid workers for a long time. At the same time, the training of Christian cultural brokers[1] shifted to the theological or secular sphere. The latter, for example, in the case of medical, nursing, translational, linguistic or economic development aid. From the very beginning, missiology was in a critical balancing act with theology. To this day, the church does not dispute the need for research on the subject area of “mission”, but emphasizes the superfluousness of its own scientific disciplines or assigns the subject area to theology. The local national church is determined by its academic theology. Missiological institutions, on the other hand, are often private in nature and globally oriented. Martin Kähler (*1835-†1912) described mission as the “mother of theology”, referring to the New Testament’s reflection on missionary church practice (Kähler 1908). With the work of Gustav Warnecke (*1834-†1910), one can speak of a German academic “mission science”. It began with his chair in Halle in 1897, with Joseph Schmidlin (*1876-†1944) and his Catholic chair at the University of Münster in 1914. It was then that missiological research from this denomination began. He defined missiology as “systematic knowledge, research and presentation of the Christian spread of faith in the non-Christian world” (Schmidlin 1962:453). For a long time Münster, together with Louvain in Belgium, were the driving forces behind Catholic missiological think tanks. While the former understood “mission” as the salvation of souls, the latter interpreted it as the spread of the church. In the Second Vatican Council, a compromise was found in Ad Gentes Chapter 1 Paragraph 6 from 1965, which linked the two:

“The proper purpose of this missionary activity is evangelization, and the planting of the Church among those peoples and groups where it has not yet taken root.”

With the end of military-expansionary colonialism, from the mid-1960s onwards, especially from North Africa and the Middle East (Jenkins 2006:91), the era of governmental research on the topic of mission was reduced in Europe. This led to the emergence of postcolonial studies, which critically evaluated colonialism and based on deconstructivism questioned its sociological and ethnographic constructs and discourses. Missiology was based on the social sciences. In the private sector, scientific training initiatives were established, which integrated mission sciences into the theological area (e.g. academies, Bible schools, Christian colleges). Private institutions for the training of Christian cultural brokers trusted that Christian development workers in universities were preparing for their ministry or offered their own non-academic training courses (e.g. until 2008 the seminar for language methodology at Wycliff Germany). From the 1980s onwards, the public perception of “mission” as a colonialist, militant-fundamentalist church activity also went hand in hand. Not only outwardly directed global Christian development aid (“outward mission”), but also inwardly directed diaconal work (“inward mission”), church building and church planting were very controversial in the postmodern 1980s. The state churches themselves were critical of non-church Christian approaches. They pushed free-church or non-church groups into the vicinity of sects and prohibited cooperation. But even more they set narrow limits to the internal renewal movement, so that it left the churches, such as the Ansgar churches (e.g. Schmid 2003). In the Catholic world, after some initial hesitation and critical scrutiny, the Catholic-Charismatic Renewal was incorporated into the Church by Pope John II in 1998. The first wave of mass exodus from the church ran parallel to a slow decline in church deaconry, such as the Protestant deaconesses in Baden Württemberg or Rheinhessen. Church structures were rejuvenated and a gradual decline in the number of large churches began, which continues to this day. In addition, the social-transformational church approaches started in the 1960s, such as district renewal or ecological renewal programmes (Easter march), were handed over to political or social cooperation partners in the 1980s, right up to nationalization. Church social work was reduced considerably to voluntary work.

Recent Developments in the Church and theological Education

In the academic world, few state organizations of mission studies had prevailed at the price of being subordinated to theology. The academic consolidation of the mission-scientific institutions led to a narrowing to the description of historical and state Christian development aid. At the same time, a wave of American and Anglophone Christian development aid workers began to establish churches in Europe in the free church area from 1970 onwards (Wagner 1993:18-22). They caught the mass exodus from the state church to “free church” communities. Local and national training courses such as discipleship training, Bible schools and theological seminars have been and continue to be inspired by the founding of private missiological institutions. Highly rated American institutions mark the developments. The Fuller Seminary (Pasadena, California; founded in 1947 by Charles E. Fuller), the William Carey International University (Pasadena; founded in 1977 by Ralph D. Winter), Moody Bible Institute (Chicago; founded in 1886 by Dwight Lyman Moody) or, in Europe, the All Nations Christian College (UK, London) or the Dutch Cornerstone – WEC International College (NL, Beugen) should be mentioned. They are distinguished by their creative independence from the existing state theological institutions. Many Christian development workers trained in these institutions implement this missiological creativity in Europe and worldwide.

On the other hand, the state institutions dealing with “missiology” in the German-speaking world experience dominance and close links to theology. Two different currents developed: a state university academic level, which was open only to its own church members with higher education qualifications (e.g. the German Abitur at 13th grade), and a parallel non-public free-church missiological orientation, which accepted both Abitur holders and other school-leaving qualifications. The latter were interested in practical training and the former in academic accreditation. During this phase, academic circles were formed outside the established church-university institutions, which were concerned with missiology issues (e.g. the church renewal movement; the action Persecuted Christians; the Working Group for evangelical Mission – today briefly missiotop).

Religious awakening – Environmental Variables

With the advent of Islam, especially the fundamentalist expansion of Islam at the turn of the millennium, a renewed religious awakening of the Church of the West began, as could be observed after the two world wars. This again stimulated public interest in “missiology”. The American-led military alliance with the West also led to a new reflection on Western church activities in Europe. In particular, the terrorist unrest that broke out everywhere and was perceived as a threat, first in North Africa triggered by the “Arab Spring” (2011), led to a noticeable reconsideration. Local Christian development aid in the focal countries of the Near and Middle East and North Africa came to the fore. Suddenly this work was attractive not only from a church-diaconal but also from a political point of view. The waves of migration to Europe opened up ethnic-linguistic insights into the work on the ground for European church members and shed new light on the service of Christian cultural mediators. Besides economic interests (economic refugees), the causes include the Syrian war (since 2011), the attempted establishment of the Islamic Caliphate in Iraq and Syria under ISIS (Arab Daesh, in public view since 2014), the Western military Afghanistan initiative or the withdrawal of the Western military from these areas (e.g. USA 2016) and the repeated international sanctions imposed by Iran.

The official Middle Eastern lingua franca are High Arabic, Farsi, Turkish and Russian. They are supplemented by Sorani (Central Kurdish) in Northern Iraq and Kurmanji (Eastern Turkey, Northern Syria), which is not proclaimed officially but tolerated as an inofficial language. They are now needed in European migrant work, as is the cultural knowledge of the North African, Near and Middle Eastern peoples. The Christian churches of this geographical area, whether historically grown or founded by Christian development workers, came into public awareness because they were persecuted by terrorist groups (e.g. Daesh in Eastern Syria) and state organisations (e.g. in Iran). These developments triggered memories such as the persecution and extermination of the Armenians (1894-1896; 1910, 1914-1915) during the transition of the Ottoman Empire to the Turkish Republic. Church and political forces demanded official recognition from politicians. The issues surrounding the occurrence of Christian martyrdom and persecution of Christians caused a wave of solidarity, willingness to integrate and public outrage. A strengthening of church forces and Christian values has been accompanied by a nationalistic-political orientation in recent years.

On the Catholic side, the reflection on social justice is to be mentioned. This orientation of the South American Pope Francis (*1936-) and the situation in many African, South and Central American countries, which is perceived as social injustice, leads to economic migration movements, which in turn generate political unrest. Since its liberation-theological discourse in the 1960s, the global church has increasingly been pushed into the tension of social responsibility. The transcultural discourses listed here form the historical background and thus the social context of the emergence, orientation and focus of “intercultural theology”.

Current Intercultural Theology

With the introduction of the discipline “Intercultural Theology” as a university-relevant subject, the determination of the relationship to established missiology or to the mission sciences, which is increasingly unfolding in the German-speaking world, and to theology is being rekindled. The position paper of the German Society for Missiology (DGMW) and the Scientific Society for Theology (WGTh) from the year 2005 emphasizes this relationship. In the course of the discourses three directions can be identified:

1) a new subject,

2) a new term for the well-known subject mission science or the more recent missiology and finally

3) complementing or supplementing missiology.

In the above-mentioned position paper the latter are complementarily proposed. Religious studies, missiology and ecumenical theology should be closely interlinked within the framework of intercultural theology. This is justified by transnational, transcultural and interreligious discourses (especially Wrogemann 2012). An expansion due to globalization and digitalization seems indispensable to the initiators.

I would like to point to the history of Christian theology as the third strand of this development. The history of theology is part of the history of the church and mission. At the same time, there are special features which need to be emphasized. Such emphases can be demonstrated in the same way for other areas, e.g. the history of the science of Bible translation and other sub-disciplines of higher-level church history. It should be noted that church history is part of human history, and the history of theology, Christian mission and other disciplines are embedded in it, but have specific highlights. This article is about the understanding and relationship of “intercultural theology” to theology. What can be worked out historically in this regard?

The Origins of the Church – Priestly and Prophetic Ministry

With the biblical Acts of the Apostles the history of missiology takes its course and becomes part of the closely interwoven history of the church. For the first time it takes on a written form. Its historical roots, however, are to be found in the Hebrew Bible, the life and the deeds of the historical Jesus of Nazareth, which were handed down orally until then.

In the Hebrew Bible the future-oriented field of action of the personified Israelite deity JHWH (Ex 3:15-16) is already foreshadowed in the election of a “holy” people. Thus JHWH pretends that the past and future order of election and salvation was and will be based on this deity alone. This, self-revealing deity determines the framework of salvation and election and is not accessible to man. The condensation of world and church history described from a religious point of view in this deity is reflected in the revelation known to us as Holy Scripture. The Hebrew Bible shadows the worldly kingdoms of Israel and Judah with regard to the Kingdom of God, as the sphere of action of the Godhead. We learn that the priesthood and prophethood of the Hebrew Bible continues in the priestly-prophetic orientation of the global Church (Nu 1:49; Dt 10:9; Hb 7:3; Of 20:6). The open canon of the New Testament and the lack of a binding basic text are indications that church history, as part of human history, should be embedded in the divine plan of salvation. Similarly, divine revelation through the real languages Hebrew, Aramaic and Koiné Greek is an important feature of the real presence of the “Kingdom of God” in the space and time of humanity. The absence of a divine metalanguage or a metaphysical revelation points the history of salvation to the here and now.

Eschatologically, the “completion of times” is still pending. This means that church history, in continuation of the New Testament, sees itself as a mirror of the history of the Kingdom of God’s reality. This is where intercultural theology, missiology and mission studies come in, describing the interfaces between secular and spiritual spheres and reflecting the interlocking of church and human history. The history of the global church, above all the ethical and moral realization of the divine will, is at the center. The church unfolds as an area of teaching and learning for believers. As was shown in the Hebrew Bible using the example of the people of Israel, the community of faith should develop globally and locally in the context of the secular world. As a result, contextualized theologies developed, which responded to individual discourses. At the same time, the Kingdom of God thus takes on different contours in different contexts (Haire 2011:36). Wrogemann points to the South American, African, Asian and Japanese theologies, which can be accessed from different sources (2012:28-31). The divine influence of power on and in human beings is expressed both on the personal-individual, the collectivist, and the universal level. In the New Testament a personification of the Holy Spirit in the idealized church is revealed. This is foreshadowed for the future, as the kingdom of God is only fully realized in eschaton (post-historical time). Nevertheless, it is reflected in a mirror-like manner in the different epochs of world and church history. The discrepancy between the kingdom of God, initiated by Jesus of Nazareth and presented as an ideal, and the real history of the church challenges missiology to document and comment on these developments and to translate them into concrete contextualized proposals for solutions. Theology, on the other hand, evaluates and translates the exegetical findings into the present. Contextualization is a fundamental theological approach, which was defined in the 1960s and has been developed since then (Bevans 2011:7-9). If contextualization is now contemplated in “intercultural theology”, this should be thought of within the framework of theology. It is the complexity of approaches that underlies “intercultural theology”. This theological concern would only be possible in a hermeneutics that is capable of taking up this diversity and evaluating it for its own context. Here again the influence of theology on “intercultural theology” is overriding and it is right to ask whether an interdisciplinary difference can be identified and how it is revealed.

A look back at “missiology” and its separation from theology gives indications of how these developments can be evaluated.

Until the late Middle Ages, missiology was part of applied theology. With the emphasis on diaconal work and the mission of the church, which was promoted by Pietism, the scientific possibility of specialization outside theology arose. The end of late medieval monasteries and monastic life due to the rise of industrialization brought with it specialization. The church was challenged to meet the social changes from peasant to working class. Pedagogy (e.g. Philipp Jacob Spehner, *1635-†1705), religious education and active service to others found their way into theological education and its justification. Assignments abroad and an emerging Christian development service through the dissemination of Scripture (Bible translation), as carried out by William Carey, Zinzendorf or American (e.g. ABCFM) and British (e.g. BFBS) organizations, asked for arguments. “Missiology” was born. In the course of history, new realities have developed that influence interreligious, transnational and transcultural discourses. Mobility, the digital revolution, ecological responsibility and ecumenical and interreligious dialogue determine their discourses. Most recently, Müller provided a brief overview of German-language missiology (Müller 1999). In it, he argues that missiology and mission sciences are interchangeable, although accentuations are possible (1999:148). His overview and the graphic representation of the interdisciplinary orientation of missiology can thus also be applied to intercultural theology.

Intercultural theology forms an interdisciplinary interface between the auxiliary disciplines of linguistics, anthropology, sociology, psychology and education. Within this framework it replaces missiology and missiology as integrating disciplines. The task of intercultural theology is to do justice to the transcultural, transnational and interreligious exchange of Christian cultural mediators as actors.

Future Prospects

Intercultural theology serves a paradigm shift in the perception of global Christian development aid. It is not without reason that it has gained a reputation as a close ally, if not politically motivated actor, in close reference to military-colonialist interventions. Too often, no or a very blurred line was drawn to Western colonialist interventions (e.g. Fabri 1879). In order to cleanse oneself of this accusation, a redefinition of the orientation, accompanied by a change of name, is quite appropriate. This raises the question in the post-colonial age of what intercultural theology is allowed to speak about and from what perspective. It is the binary reaction, which evokes any statement about the ideas of others that pose challenge. This problem is played out on the

1. linguistic,

2. anthropological and

3. epistemological

level. (1) Language cannot fill the epistemological gaps comprehensively. It always remains an ultimate linguistic reservation when metaphysical processes are described. A superordinate universal meta-language is not accessible to us. (2) Ethnographic studies lack objectivity, and the (3) knowledge on which they are based, is also described as piecemeal and dependent on space and zeitgeist.

With these limitations in mind, the deconstructivist approach of inter-subjectivism (see Derrida 1967:25; Carrithers 1992:55) offers the possibility of positioning oneself and conducting inter-subjective research from this subjective position. Because of its proximity to Christian theology, intercultural theology is in danger of adopting dogmas, perspectives and premises that form the basis of its own confessional perceptions. Up to a certain point it is possible to return to an apologetic view and to engage with the critical view of other positions, but then again the own subjective religious perception only allows border crossings to a limited extent. In this case the close connection to foreign positions is a helpful instrument. The social-constructive approach uses the joint development of a research topic as a basis for this. In doing so, the researcher and the object become part of their observations and descriptions (Kiraly 2000:3-4).

At the same time, the newly introduced term “intercultural theology” confronts researchers with the task of filling it with content. It is not self-explanatory in itself. Since the term “theology” basically covers all, at least the monotheistic, but in a broader sense all religious schools of thought. The term “intercultural” points in the direction of religious studies. In real use, however, the proximity to theology, especially Christian theology, is almost confusing. Here it would make sense to speak of intercultural theologies in the plural, which result from contextualized local forms of Christian formations. In this sense, by means of prior investigation and evaluation, intercultural theology conveys other religious or ethnological-linguistic contents in its own space in an ethnographic way. The overlap with religious studies becomes clear at university chairs, such as in Hamburg at the Institute for Mission, Ecumenical and Religious Studies and others.

Summary

The literary use of the terms “missiology” and “mission studies” in English-speaking and German-speaking countries reveals tendencies that make the term “missiology” interchangeable with the term “mission studies”. The Anglophone world currently dominates the missiological world and the term “missiology” is becoming increasingly audible. In particular, the technical language from social media and the digital world, such as apps or tools for evangelism and exegesis (Logos, Bibleworks, Microsoft Office) shape the vocabulary. English as the lingua franca of the digital world therefore also determines the missiological space. “Intercultural Theology” takes up both and positions itself alongside “theology” as the discipline, which deals with the actors, historical developments and the future of global Christian development aid and diaconal work in transcultural, transnational and interreligious discourse. In this context, the interdisciplinary approach to the most diverse auxiliary sciences, especially linguistics, anthropology, social sciences, education and psychology, plays a significant role. The priestly-prophetic orientation of the global church forms the framework for Christian development aid and diaconal work. In it, cultural mediation is conceived as an intrinsic phenomenon of divine revelation. Only the diaconal communication of Christian content in other linguistic and cultural contexts provides the church with its actual foundation. The church is not for its own sake, but for others.

The separation of “intercultural theology” from “theology” in terms of content may be judged essentially by its interest in the discourses of the globally active actors. In terms of content, “intercultural theology” in the German-speaking world starts essentially in “theology”. In the Anglophone context, globally oriented intercultural training institutions have developed that have separated themselves from theology. The term “missiology” is preferred there. It is worth noting that German Christian cultural brokers often complete their training abroad in “missiology” or “intercultural studies” in order to then teach and do research in their home country in the field of “intercultural theology”. There is an imbalance here, which leads to different missiological focuses in the academic world.

 

Bibliography

Bevans, Stephen B. 2011. What Has Contextual Theology to Offer the Church of the Twenty-First Century?, in Bevans, Stephen B. & Tahaafe-Williams, Katalina (eds.): Contextual Theology for the Twenty-First Century. Missional Church, Public Theology, World Christianity, 3-17. Eugene: Pickwick.

Carrithers, Michael 1992. Why Humans have Cultures: Explaining Anthropology and Social Diversity. Oxford: Opus.

Derrida, Jacques 1967. Of Grammatology. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit.

Fabri, Friedrich 1879. Bedarf Deutschland der Kolonien? Barmen: Rheinische Mission.

Fuhrman, Siri, Geldbach, Erich & Pahl, Irmgard (Hgg.) 2003. Soziale Rollen von Frauen in Religionsgemeinschaften: Ein Forschungsbericht. Münster: LIT Verlag.

Haire, James 2011. The Centrality of Contextual Theology for Christian Existence Today, in Bevans, Stephen B. & Tahaafe-Williams, Katalina (eds.): Contextual Theology for the Twenty-First Century, 18-37. Missional Church, Public Theology, World Christianity. Eugene: Pickwick.

Höh, Marc von der, Jaspert, Nikolas. & Oesterle, Jenny Rahel 2013. Courts, Brokers and Brokerage in the Medieval Mediterranean, in Höh, Marc von der, Jaspert, Nikolas. & Oesterle, Jenny Rahel (eds.): Cultural Brokers at Mediterranean Courts in the Middle Ages, 9–31. Paderborn: Fink.

Jenkins, Philip 2006. Die Zukunft des Christentums: Eine Analyse zur weltweiten Entwicklung im 21. Jahrhundert. Giessen: Brunnen.

Kähler, Martin [1908] 1971. Schriften zur Christologie und Mission. München: Kaiser Verlag.

Kiraly, Don 2000. A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education. Empowerment from Theory to Practice. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Müller, Klaus W. 1999. Deutschsprachige evangelikale Missiologie: Beitrag zur Definition und Plädoyer für Eigenständigkeit. Evangelikale Missiologie 4, 146-158.

Schmid, Georg (Hg.) 2003. Kirchen, Sekten, Religionen: Religiöse Gemeinschaften, weltanschauliche Gruppierungen und Psycho-Organisationen im deutschen Sprachraum, ein Handbuch. 7. überarb. und erg. Auflage. Zürich: TVZ Theologischer Verlag.

Schmidlin, Josef 1962. Missiologie. LThK 453. Bd. 2. völlig neu bearbeitete Aufl. Freiburg: Herder.

Wagner, William Lyle 1993. North American Protestant Missionaries in Western Europe: A Critical Appraisal. Edition afem mission academics 1. Bonn: VKW (Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft).

Wrogemann, Henning 2012. Interkulturelle Theologie und Hermeneutik: Grundfragen, aktuelle Beispiele, theoretische Perspektiven. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

Footnotes
[1] The term aims to emphasise the cultural significance of Christian actors in an intercultural context (Höh, Jaspert, and Oesterle 2013:9).

First Translation, Revision and New Bible Translation – An Overview and Perspectives –

/in

Eberhard Werner

 

 

Overview

First Translation, Revision and New Bible Translation. 1

– An Overview and Perspectives – 1

Abstract 1

1. Question and description. 1

2. Similarities and intersections 4

3. First-Bible Translations – Framework Conditions 8

4. Revision Bible translations – Framework Conditions 14

5. New Bible Translations – Framework Conditions 16

6. A Comparison – Overview.. 20

7. Conclusion and Outlook. 21

Appendix. 25

 

Abstract

Revisions and new Bible translations take place where the Christian Church can rely on many years of experience in Bible translation and thus the focus lies on processes within the church. In contrast, projects of first bible translations (also called missionary or pioneer bible translations), as they are carried out on behalf of the church in a global context, face completely different challenges, in particular the lack of an environment relevant to the translation of the Bible, such as an interested audience, native-speaking exegetical tools or organizational production and distribution structures. These differences in the projects for Bible translation have a stimulating effect on both companies. Both the differences and the mutual interfaces with regard to current and expected developments in Bible translation are to be discussed.

 

1. Question and description

In the scientific discussion on Bible translation and translation science, the differences and similarities of so-called revision, new and first translations in the global Christian ministry are pointed out. In my opinion, there is no scientific discussion on this topic. With this article, I would like to consider the differences, the similarities and possible synergies.

Missiology and theology are not only mingled in this discussion, but also in tension with each other. In the context of biblical studies, theology focuses more on revision Bible translations due to its orientation towards exegetical knowledge. At the same time, as the fruit of theology, missiology, with its diaconal and practice-oriented orientation, seeks interdisciplinary collaboration with linguistics, anthropology, sociology, psychology and other disciplines. Her focus is therefore on first Bible translations. In the science of Bible translation, this orientation is combined to create synergies. Nevertheless, when choosing the audience, the linguistic level in particular, the use of key biblical concepts (e.g. Trinity, biblical proper names, terms such as sin, salvation, law etc.) or the translation theories (e.g. functional, literal, or dynamic-equivalent etc.) critical discussions, but also the mutual evaluation of empirical values can be expected.

First Bible translations are also called missionary or pioneer Bible translations. They take place in Christian development aid and arise in contexts in which there is no Bible translation for a language group or a sociological unit. If you look at the approximately 7,000 language groups or 16,400 ethnic groups of humankind, according to the Wycliffe Global Alliance, this still includes approximately 1,700-1,800 possible projects. This information is not conclusive, as language and culture are constantly developing and new translation requirements are constantly opening up, as was recently shown by the awareness of at least 170 sign languages. For example, the linguistic variety of languages by dialects and idiolects is far from completely clear.

First Bible translations shape the missiological basis for the development and application of theories and models of translation in the context of the applied translation sciences. They introduce linguistic-cultural concepts from the base text into the target culture and language where there is no Christian community, or they formulate oral Christian concepts in written form if a Christian community exists. This creates processes that make it possible to link different scientific disciplines with one another. A test scenario emerges, on which translational intuition is just as important as exegetical analysis or the hermeneutic application of the base text. The source language and concepts to be transferred must be preceded by an exact linguistic-cultural analysis in the target language and culture. Both processes complement each other. Most of these projects are influenced by the outside world and the work with native-speaking translators who are encouraged to study translation.

Revision Bible translations take place in contexts in which there is already at least one Bible translation and thus a theologically interested group of experts. This Bible translation serves as a reference for further Bible translations in this language group. Either this reference work is due for revision, such as in Germany the Luther Bibel (1545 – 2017; LÜ) and the Einheitsübersetzung [Unification-Translation] (1980 – 2016; EIN), in order to adapt it to language and cultural developments, or a new Bible translation (new Bible translation) is planned or published, that separates from the reference work. The latter can be done linguistically and culturally from the target group or translation theory. For example, the Volxbibel (2005 ongoing online revisions), the Bibel in gerechter Sprache [Bible in Just Language] (2006; 2012) or more recently the Neue Genfer Übersetzung [New Geneva Translation] (2009; including Psalms in 2015). These latter new Bible translations represent an intermediate category because they establish their own line of tradition (reception histories). In addition, they are close to revision Bible translations, since they are created in the context of existing reference materials. However, they introduce new genre, new ideas and new vocabulary to the local church. As such, new Bible translations are subject to both the above-mentioned criteria for the first translations described and the revision Bible translations.

Revisions may become necessary early on after a translation is completed, as evidenced by the revision of the New Testament to the Luther Translation (LÜ) from 1975 in 1984. In other cases, it may take decades for a review or revision (LÜ 1984-2017; EIN 1980-2016). Incidentally, the Luther Bible has a very varied reception history of its now four church official revisions from the years 1892, 1912, 1975/1984 and most recently 2017 (detailed Kähler 2016: 7-8). Luther and his translation team revised the translation of the New Testament from 1522 and the full Bible from 1534 with more than 30 revisions until the end of his life in 1546. The so-called “Last Hand Edition”, the last revision from 1545, was made by the cooperation of Martin Luther (Bigl 2016: 32). However, the edition of 1546 prevailed as the «standard bible», in which the last direct suggestions of Luther and his translation team were incorporated (Michel 2016: 255-256).

The following abbreviations are used here: first bible translation (EBÜ), revision bible translation (RBÜ), new bible translation (NBÜ).

2. Similarities and intersections

Revisions and new Bible translations mostly come from initiatives that are theological, rarely linguistic, religious or out of translation science (e.g. old philologist Herrmann Menge 1926 see below). Church associations, individual or multiple scientists or theologians, or groups interested in theology (e.g. Jehovah’s Witnesses) recognize the need to revise an existing or to create a new Bible translation. The latter is based on a different Skopos (objective) of existing ones.

Revisions and new Bible translations work with an audience that is familiar with the genre of Bible translation and that knows the biblical content, but is open to new linguistic forms. Native theological laypeople or foreign-language missiologists, theologians, cultural or social researchers interested in spreading the gospel, initiate first Bible translations. The Bible translation genre is alien to the public or even opposes it. This applies above all to biblical-Christian concepts.1Socio-cultural background of a Bible translation project. Who’s the audience? A broad social class or micro-cultures (subculture), target group orientation, Christian or non-Christian context.

Bible translation in general is subject to the premises of translation and communication science. Following the laws of communication, any text can be translated into any language. It should also be noted that the languages of the base biblical text were normal languages of antiquity, as has been contested only to a limited extent since Deissmann.2Linguistic-cultural component. Which social and linguistic influences are taken into account, meet each other or which linguistic-cultural demands do people make in translation? From a linguistic and translational point of view therefore it is not a divine text that only a theological or ecclesiastical audience would be accessible, or only in a certain way (e.g. literally etc.) or would not be translatable at all (see Inlibration in Islam). Rather, from the outset, an anthropocentric approach determines the history of Bible translation and thus the way the Church deals with the Bible. This becomes clear

on the translation of the Hebrew text into Greek, the Septuagint (LXX), even before the Christian era,
the fact that the New Testament was written in Koiné Greek, despite its origin in an Aramaic-Hebrew environment3Economic factors that create interests. Who finances the project and how does this influence the project workflow? Is it a long-term project with profit sharing by an organization (e.g. local Bible Society)? and
early translations into Syriac (Peshitta 1st / 5th century), Latin (4th century; Hieronymus), Gothic (4th century; Ulfila) and Slavic (9th century; Methodius and Cyril).
This contrasts with the theological interpretation and worship of the Holy Scriptures, as well as their translations by the faithful as sacred works and ecclesiastical liturgical texts (detailed in Kocher 2016: 258).4Skopos, project plan and process flows. Is theological-exegetical knowledge preferable to translation skills? Are specific translation theories applied? These points must be determined in advance in all translation projects. They bind the participants together and serve to advise and solve problems. In case of high fluctuation in the project, they are important to the integration of new participants. This is to generate the target, a “binding” central German teaching text for preaching, catechumenate and personal use. The same is assumed for the King James Version in the English-speaking realm. The underlying assumption is the idea of a unity of local and global Christianity by a central Bible translation.5The idea of a binding text requires a common mother tongue and a homogeneous religious orientation. However, this fails due to the different linguistic and theological objectives. The central social position of the church in the Middle Ages allowed the binding use of a liturgy Bible, but was already wishful thinking even then, since the Latin Vulgate, different versions of the Luther translation and other German Bibles competed with each other in the ecclesiastical and private spheres (see FN 9; 11; 45). The “creeping” hypothesis of inspiration, which developed over several centuries, led to a central unique position in the German-speaking area for the Luther Bible and in the Anglophone for the King James Version. This central position to the Bible and its translations with biblical references is addressed at a divine origin of the Bible. These include e.g. the divine literal speech “I will …” from e.g. Gen 3:15 or Joshua 7:13, the prohibition of textual changes in Rev 22: 18-19-19, the breath of God after 2Tim 3:16 or the prophetic words “so says the Lord” e.g. in 1Sam 2:27. The theological argument is called “inspiration”, that is, the divine breath of Scripture.6Jeising, Thomas 2012. Was bedeutet Inspiration?, in Mayer, Thomas (Hg.): Die Bibel – Ganze Inspiration. Ganze Wahrheit. Ganze Einheit, 34-59. Nürnberg: VTR. With this reasoning, the content as well as the form eludes human interpretation. “Faultiness” is perceived as a flaw and “flawlessness” or “inerrancy” is proclaimed. This reasoning is cemented by the argument that the definition of “divine word” would result in stricter mindfulness and control when translating and would thus be directly transferred to the translation.

The assumption of an “unchangeable, inspired” text can only be conditionally approved, since the divine value and content, i.e. the deeper statement of salvation or the plan of salvation, is not suddenly revealed to the public. The discrepancy remains that the mediation is on the word, sentence and text level, i.e. on purely human communication channels (Nida & Taber 1969:180 No. 5; see FN 30). This leads to a hermeneutic circular conclusion, which entrusts the care of the writing to the global “church”, but this “divine word” is at the same time regarded as the foundation of the same. In addition, from a translational perspective, the client or the clients, who usually assume a “sacred” work from the outset due to religious motivation, determine the Skopos of a translation of the Bible. Here, it was assumed, literal translations supposedly reflected, so to speak, greater “text accuracy” than communicative ones. In this sense, it should also be mentioned that «Bible translators» do not have to be theologians, but primarily have the ability to transfer content from a foreign linguistic-cultural context to their own or to another. There are examples, e.g. Menge-Translation in which not a theologian but an ancient philologist translated the entire bible (Haacker 2015: 11; see FN 3).7Let me emphasize following: In my opinion, a mistake is made between transfer and translation. An information «transmission» is literally a literal translation from one language group into another. A radio “transmission” represents a one-to-one transmission from a transmitter to a receiver. Change is not possible. In this sense it is better to speak of “paraphrase”, “free translation” or “free to speak transmission”. In my opinion, the semantic variation of “transference” as a “free interpretation of a text” is a metaphor, especially used in the ecclesiastical world, to discredit unpleasant translations and to suspect falsification. Incidentally, it is a German phenomenon, since there is no verbal distinction in the Anglophone and Francophone area. However, there is a clearer distinction between paraphrase and translation.

The attributes of Bible translation textuality, accuracy and intelligibility play an important role. Between these, the translators weigh up their translation proposals. You have to decide to what extent you bring the base text to the reader or to what extent you bring the listener to the base text. The translation scientist Venuti introduces the terms domestication and alienation/ foeignisation (2008: 50).8Venuti, Lawrence S. [1995] 2008. The Translator’s Invisibility: A history of translation. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.

 The spectrum ranges from: interlinear (literally)9Das Alte Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Hebräisch-Deutsch 2003. Steurer, Rita Maria. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler. Das Neue Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Griechisch-Deutsch 2003. Dietzfelbinger, Ernst. Holz­gerlingen: Hänssler. DaBhaR – DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Alten Bundes und DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Neuen Bundes 1989. 2. Bde. Baader, Fritz Henning. Schömberg: Eigenverlag.,
to literal (e.g. Elberfeld Bible 198010Revidierte Elberfelder Bibel (ELB) 1992. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. Die Heilige Schrift. Elberfelder Über­setzung. Edition CSV Hückeswagen.),
communicative, free translations (Volxbible, Bible in just language) to
paraphrases (comic bibles, Jörg Zink Bible).

The boundaries are fluid and to some extent artificial, as they depend on the subjective understanding of the audience.11Habituation and tradition lead to a loss of awareness of whether content is understood or not. The term “father” was given an extension through the biblical context that was not translated into everyday language use. “Father of many peoples” (Gen 17: 5; similar to Gen 4:21 “Father of all who play the zither” etc.) would never be said in normal usage about a ruler, leader or patriarch. The term “progenitor” has only been used in the church as a term, otherwise “ancestor”, “ancestor”, or “origin of family” is used. The Luther Bible is said to balance between literal and communicative units (Schwarz 1986: 29; Kretzmann quoted in Nida 1964: 29)12Schwarz, Werner 1986. Schriften zur Bibelübersetzung und mittelalterlichen Übersetzungstheorie. Hamburg: Friedrich Wittig. Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill.. Such a change ultimately occurs more or less in all translations, as every Bible translator knows from experience. Two things have to be decided when translating literally. Firstly, to what extent unknown facts are transferred to the linguistic-cultural world of the audience. An example is the term “savior”, which is used as an equivalent for מוֹשִׁ֣יעַ moschia (e.g. Ps. 17: 7) or σωτήρ sōtër (e.g. Lk 2:11). The term “savior” has been attested since the 8th century and is interpreted christologically by Luther. It stands for “savior” (in LÜ 1984 35x). Furthermore, one had to introduce this understanding as new facts in a linguistic-cultural context. Another example is from the term tabernacle that is מֹועֵ֑ד אֹ֣הֶל moed ohel “tabernacle”. Until then, this facility was not known in German (in LÜ 1984 174x). Another example is the translation of hebr. חֵן hen “grace” into the Greek χάρις xaris «favor, mercy, goodness» (302x), which often should not be reproduced concordant-philologically.

In this context, the deviation from grammatical-syntactic peculiarities of the source language and the impossibility of a complete philological-concordant transmission between two languages should also be mentioned. Just think of idiomatic expressions or grammatical constructions if they can only be translated idiomatically and in context.

Another criterion for any translation activity is its intuitive orientation, which is also a limitation. Translation is always an intuitive approach. Intuition is significant. This creates deviations, changes, but also reformulations. Both literal and free or communicative translation offer only an approximation. All models and theories of translation agree on this. The attributes “loyalty to the text” and “closeness to the word” stand for the question of whether you want to bring the grammatical-philological peculiarities of the source languages closer to the audience. If, on the other hand, the target language with all its peculiarities is to be emphasized, the translation follows the attribute “intelligibility” (preface in the New Geneva Translation 2015: VII).13New Geneva translation (2015), see here: Notes for the reader, p. VII.

3. First-Bible Translations – Framework Conditions

Let us start with first Bible translations from the global Christian ministry because they require framework conditions that differ from revision and new Bible translations.

Globalization and the spread of ideological, religious or economic systems, such as socialism, capitalism, Marxism, radicalism, nationalism and world religions, to name but a few, lead to migration movements that generated new linguistic and cultural identities of people and groups of people (e.g. migrant workers, mercenary armies, multi-national citizens etc.). The identity feature “language” or “mother tongue” is not always establishing the identity and is irrelevant in some places, especially in the diaspora. One example is the “migrant workers”, which also include forced labor performance through targeted indebtedness (forced labor slaves). From poor, mostly Asian countries, these are attracted to the major construction sites of world organizations (FIFA World Cups; International Olympic Committee – Olympics; Urban Development; Panama Canal; World Exhibition etc.). International languages (so-called lingua franca) replace the mother tongue, whereby consciously or unconsciously untrained bilingual people are used as mediators (translators). Many languages from small language groups are never written and are therefore not preserved in the long term.14Language dying, language death, cultural and language changes are complex processes that are increasingly commented, examined and described. However, the description of such processes does not stop them. The description serves more to preserve the ethnic-linguistic profile of the world community. Sociolinguistics offers corresponding description models and instruments (Fasold 1993:213, 215, 239). Fasold, Ralph [1984] 1993. The Sociolinguistics of Society. Oxford: Blackwell. In such contexts, Bible translators increasingly make use of oral translations (oral translations), since these language groups are critical of writing without a focus or hope on further pedagogical development. Verbal translations of this kind are available audio-visually as audio text or as video in the context of digital media (e.g. on the Internet, as an app, a file or video display). In many cases, the oral retelling is no longer written down (oral products), but written biblical products only emerge when needed as part of language development. These are created and published based on the retelling, the biblical base text, as well as socio-linguistically significant Bible translations, e.g. linguistically related national language or language of wider use.

Another aspect of first bible translations is the inclusion of native-speaking translators who are encouraged to study translation principles. As a selective criterion, the ability to translate outweighs theological-exegetical knowledge. The United Bible Societies (UBS) has been promoting this since the 1960s. At the same time, however, they only focused on translation projects in which there were ethnic churches or Christian groups. Since the late 1990s, other Bible translation organizations have also begun to translate not “for” but “with” the public. One step further, Bible translation projects are only supported on site and only by native speakers (Meurer 2001:16). It was realized that an audience only accepts a translation as „own“, if it has also gone through the process of becoming local (:15-16). Modern digitization, in turn, runs counter to this process, since manufacturing and distribution channels are now so diverse that it is difficult to realize joint projects for larger (language) groups. The individualization within the framework of social networks or “ego media” (on the self-presentation focusing social media) is almost limitless. All the more as to those contexts where the dominance of a national or common language puts political groups at a disadvantage due to political and social pressure. Overall, Bible translation organizations today deal with ethnic minorities, regardless of whether there are Christian translators or a local church. Corresponding political tensions with government leaderships that are critical of Christianity are bridged at the local level or in the diaspora, but play a significant role in project planning and implementation.15The absolute majority of Bible translation projects worldwide are carried out by people who no longer live in their original language area. Mostly it is the big cities in their country, western-oriented countries or big Asian cities in which large ethnic groups settle. There, the work of translating the Bible with a foreign or other ethnic background is less noticeable and offers more test personnel. See Kim, S. Hun 2014. Diaspora Mission and Bible Translation, in Im, Chandler H. & Yong, Amos (eds.): Global Diasporas and Mission, 228-235. Oxford: Regnum Books International. Also online: URL: http://www.ocms.ac.uk/regnum/downloads/-Global_Diasporas_and_Mission.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2020-07-20]. To my knowledge, the influence of the political and social environment on a modern revision Bible translation project has not yet been examined. Felber tried to indicate this by using Nida’s communicative translation theory (dynamic / functional equivalence), but falls short due to a self-critical reflection of his own church, which deals with the Luther translation just as dependent on the Zeitgeist. Felber, Stefan 2013. Communicative Bible Translation – Eugene A. Nida and His Model of Dynamic Equivalence. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.

UNESCO promotes so-called mother tongue instruction (Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education MT-MLE). Since the year 2000, the mother tongue is celebrated annually on February 21, on the International Mother Tongue Day. This is just one-step to break down hurdles in such contexts. MLE offers everyone involved a Win-Win situation, since the training and work opportunities of educated, bilingual population groups increase enormously, thus relieving the state economically, politically and socially, among other things by gaining mutual trust.

The training of native-speaking translators in first Bible translation projects plays an outstanding role. They must be able to not only master the languages of the base text, but also be able to analyze the own language. It is about phonetic, phonological, morpho-syntactic, but also text grammatical peculiarities. Bible translations in closely related languages, especially if they have a long tradition, should be used as well as those that determine the linguistic-cultural environment (e.g. national languages). The biblical base text is the reference work. Local translators to such an extent must understand that the translation consultants can use it exegetically, when advising to jointly check the translated text. Since the 1960s, it has been criticized  that lexicons and commentaries on the Bible are not helpful to translators. Their word suggestions and literal translations are rarely discussed for translation problems.16Porter points out the changes in the historical development of New Testament commentaries. He does not list translation-related questions, which indicates that this is not a premise for the commentators (2013:51-53). Porter, Stanley E. 2013. The Linguistic Competence of New Testament Commentaries, in Porter, Stanley E. & Schnabel, Eckhard J. (eds.): On the Writing of New Testament Commentaries. Commemorative for Grant R. Osborne on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, 34-56. Brill: suffering. Online: URL: http://www.krizma-ebooks.com/books/On%20the%20Writing%20of%20New%20Testa… [PDF-File] [2017-04-10]. Moo lists two series of comments that break this charge, but these are a big exception (Moo 2013: 67-68). Moo, Douglas J. 2013. Translation in New Testament Commentaries, in Porter, Stanley E. & Schnabel, Eckhard J. (eds.): On the Writing of New Testament Commentaries. Commemorative for Grant R. Osborne on the Occasion of his 70th Birthday, 57-72. Brill: suffering. Online: URL: http://www.krizma-ebooks.com/books/On%20the%20Writing%20of%20New%20Testa… [PDF-File] [2020-07-20]. Some tools that represent text-critical content relevant to translators are the UBS Handbook for Translators (comment-like information for Bible translators), the UBS4th ed Greek New Testament edition (2012) and A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament by Metzger (1975).17GNT 2014. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, et al. (Ed.). 5th edition of Holzgerlingen: German Bible Society. Metzger, Bruce M. 1975. A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. Corr. ed. London and New York: United Bible Societies. Others who build on this, such as B. Omanson and Metzger (2006) are mentioned here only briefly. Omanson, Roger L., & Metzger, Bruce M. 2006. A Textual Guide to the Greek New Testament: An adaptation of Bruce M. Metzger’s Textual commentary for the needs of translators. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.

There is little planning in projects for first Bible translations because the actors can change quickly. This extends from the project management to the translators and the people who distribute the product.

A Bible translation project as a first translation usually involves the following phases:

Analysis of the cultural environment variants (anthropology) and linguistic peculiarities of the language group (linguistics) into which a Bible translation is sought. After phonetic-phonological and text grammatical analysis, an alphabet is suggested for writing (sociolinguistics).
A translation team starts with a gospel, e.g. the Gospel of Luke18Luke’s Gospel offers the best historical overview of what happened to Jesus of Nazareth, the Messiah.. At the same time, native translators are trained in their own language (linguistics) and culture (anthropology), the languages of the base biblical text (exegesis and hermeneutics) and the theory and practice of translation (translation studies).
The project extends to oral translation, online products (e.g. cultural website) and cultural-linguistic studies (e.g. grammar; ethnography, exegetical aids) around the language group. The goal is to drive the writing of the language forward.
Bible texts are checked by translation consultants, initially tested by a sample audience and finally tested for intelligibility in worship or in evangelism. After subsequent and final processing with everyone involved, a product can go to print or online (app, PDF, interactive website).
Bible translation projects as a first translation offer the opportunity to try out and generate new translation and communication theories. This is due, since no established traditional structures counteract the translation process (see below). This has resulted in many empirical values and innovations. The dynamic equivalence (Nida 1964; Taber & Nida 1969; de Waard & Nida 1986), the frame models (e.g. Katan 1999) and also the relevance theory translation approach (Gutt 1992 and 2000) have developed in this way.19Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: EJ Brill. (TASOT). Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: EJ Brill. (TAPOT). Waard, Jan de & Nida, Eugene A. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation. Nashville: Nelson. (FOLIA). Katan, David 1999. Translating Cultures: An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters and Mediators. Manchester: St. Jerome.Gutt, Ernst-August 1992. Relevance Theory: A Guide to Successful Communication in Translation. Dallas: SIL International / UBS. Gutt, Ernst-August [1991] 2000. Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context.2nd .ed Manchester: St. Jerome. Vermeer, Hans J. 1978. A framework for a general translation theory. Living languages 23/1, 99-102. Munich: Langenscheidt. Nord, Christiane [1997] 2001. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained. Reprint. Manchester: St. Jerome.

First Bible translations also serve as a test bed for new theories from translation science, such as the Skopos theory (Vermeer 1989) or the functional approaches (Nord 2001).20In detail Werner 2011:102-193. Werner, Eberhard 2011. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität anhand der Ausbildungspraxis. Hamburg: Kovač.The only German-language translation of the Bible from an explicitly functional point of view is the INSEL translation: Berger, Klaus & Nord, Christiane 1999. Das Neue Testament und frühchristliche Schriften. Frankfurt am Main: Insel. An interplay of applied translation science, missiology and theology is brought about, which leads in retrospect into the increasing integration of translational knowledge in these disciplines. Whereas new Bible translations prove to be creative and dynamic Bible translations (e.g. Volxbibel etc.), revisions are far more modest and try to keep up with the initial translation tradition (e.g. Luther Bible, Einheitsübersetzung). Last we find in the missiological context of first Bible translations a tendency that holds on to the traditional, the philological-concordant translation method. Again new Bible translations are more open to the fruits of missiology as shown by online Bibles and those that follow political correctness.

The definition of a translation style moves between literal and communicative theories. It is interesting that native translators for first Bible translations usually translate in a philological-concordant manner to guarantee accuracy. This means that they follow the literal and concordant-philological translation approach. The tendency is to counter each term from the base text with an equivalent in their target language. Only a training on communicative and translational opportunities allows for a communicative approach. Interestingly, this is not demonstrated the case with consecutive interpreting. The reasons are probably on a religious level.

First Bible translations arise in a space in which there is still no written form or tradition of biblical terms. Therefore, those are abstracted from the cultural and linguistic environment. In other words, an effect of the first Bible translation is to generate “key terms” or better “biblical key concepts” (Harmelink 2012:32) for the first time.21Harmelink, Bryan 2012. Lexical Pragmatics and Hermeneutical Issues in the Translation of Key Terms. Journal of Translation (JOT) 8/1, 25-35. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Also online: URL: http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548938/siljot2012-1-03.pdf [PDF] [accessed 2020-06-29]. One example is the term Ἰησοῦς Χριστός Iësous Christos “Jesus Christ”, where ὁ χριστός ho christos “the Christ” (e.g. Acts 9:34) was introduced directly from Greek. Nowadays, this obscures the meaning of the anointing and oiling, as it corresponds to the Greek Μεσσίας «Messiah», Hebrew משִׁיחַ mašiaḥ «Messiah» (e.g. the anointing of King David 1Sam 16:13; also FN 46). In this context, closely related languages should be used or taken into account, since possible Bible translations have already accomplished this service or will still do so based on the newly emerging ones. “Biblical key concepts” are specific linguistic metaphors that cover the religious environment of the biblical world. They are central to local theologies. This includes, for example, terms such as “sin” (see FN 49), “salvation”, “reconciliation”, “law” and their semantic word fields. This also includes the names of God and proper names. The tradition of a revision of the Bible is based on the philological adherence to such terminology. The associated teaching on “metaphors” describes the special position of central theological concepts in one language. Metaphors are divided into their use in everyday life (Lakoff and Johnson 2003), as universal metaphors are in semantics (Goddard 1994) and the hermeneutical effects of metaphors (Ricoeur 1974).22Lakoff, Georg & Johnson, Mark [1980] 2003. Metaphors We Live By. 2nd. ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. So online: URL: http://shu.bg/tadmin/upload/storage/161.pdf [accessed 2020-06-10]. Goddard, Cliff 1994. Semantic Theory and Semantic Universals, in Goddard, Cliff & Wierzbicka, Anna (eds.): Semantic and Lexical Universals: Theory and Empirical Findings, 8-29. Amsterdam: John Benjamin. Ricoeur, Paul 1974. Stellung und Funktion der Metapher in der biblischen Sprache, in Ricoeur, Paul & Jüngel, Ernst (Hg.): Metapher. Zur Hermeneutik religiöser Sprache, 24-45. Sonder­heft Evangelische Theologie. München: Kaiser. All of these approaches indicate that special attention is paid to them when translating. At the same time, they solidify due to a “traditional awareness” of salvation truths that are often indissoluble. In addition to terminology, grammatical constructs can also solidify here, e.g. “in Christ” instead of “connected to Christ”, “near Jesus” or “in agreement with Christ” (e.g. Rom 8:1).

In First Bible translations the translation team includes theological, anthropological and linguistic consultants, project managers and native-speaking translators. In the case of a local church, the weight shifts in favor of native theological, anthropological and linguistic advisors. Most of the funding and project management comes from outside.

The particularly rapid digital development in first Bible translations has not yet taken root in new or revision Bible translations. In the digital age, computer programs such as ParaText (UBS), FleX (SIL), ScriptureAppBuilder (SIL) and many others support communication for team translation even across time zones and distances. They facilitate the development of the basic biblical text and the translation based on the simultaneous display of many parallel texts and exegetical tools and the simultaneous automatic comparison of text changes.23ParaText allows simultaneous viewing of the base text, viewing two reference translations and creating your own translation in a pre-formatted blank field (counting, chapter heading and footnote formatting) and on a larger screen. The translated text is automatically sent to a preselected group that can work on the same text at the same time. Fieldworks (FleX) is a linguistic program that allows self-built dictionaries. It can be coupled with Paratext and can automatically match word content with the biblical text from Paratext and thus show inconsistencies or deviations. Ethnographic-anthropological observations on a keyword can also be called up and taken into account in the translation process. The publication of test texts on social media and in native-language forums offers the possibility of interactive discussion and testing and checking for intelligibility. The distribution of native-language Bible translations as a product via apps, on websites of native-language organizations and on social media is more promising and prestigious than in the mostly critically eyed Christian bookstores in many states that understand Christian faith as a western political product or propaganda.

4. Revision Bible translations – Framework Conditions

Exegetical experts who translate in their own mother tongue context carry out revision and new Bible translations. Longstanding Christian traditions have generated exegetical tools and expertise in the field of the base Biblical text and its interpretation. The theologically trained translators are well versed and usually decide, in several runs, according to the majority principle, which suggestions they want to take. In these projects, the exegetical-theological ability is rated much higher than the ability to translate. Revision Bible translations have a high degree of planning security because the actors and the project are integrated into fixed structures.

In the case of revisions, attention is paid to a certain tradition, which should be recognizable throughout. So it is often spoken of “review”, “revision” or “new edition” to indicate the continuation of a tradition.24On the Luther Bible 2017: Bibelreport IV 2010. Durchsicht der Lutherbibel, 14. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Revisions are continuing a certain linguistic and stylistic translation tradition. The history of the reception of the German Bible translations shows this particularly clearly in the Luther translation and the Elberfeld Bible. In the Latin area, the centuries-old Vulgate tradition stands out. Given the preservation of tradition, only text-critical knowledge is carefully incorporated and moderate adjustments of language and style made.25Werlitz describes the revision process as follows in the appendix to the 2016 standard translation: “The revision should therefore be carried out moderately and the text inventory with its long-established basic tone should be preserved as far as possible” (2016: 1448). Werlitz, Jürgen 2016. I. Die Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift und ihre Revision: Ein einführender Überblick. Die Bibel – Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift 2016, 1447-1452. Gesamtausgabe. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk. Likewise, the revision of the Luther Bible 2017: “Those parts that are incomprehensible or misunderstood today were changed very carefully” (Bedford-Strohm 2017: Foreword). Bedford-Strohm, Heinrich 2017. Vorwort. Die Bibel nach Martin Luthers Übersetzung. Lutherbibel Revidiert 2017 mit Apokryphen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

A revision Bible translation rests both on an exegetical analysis of the base text and on a story of interpretation that led to theological reference works such as exegetical aids, comments and translation aids.

Due to their reception history, revisions are subject to a hermeneutic circle. They influence theology, hermeneutics and the tools derived from them, but are based on them at the same time. This results in a linguistic continuum that can hardly overcome the self-imposed hurdles. This is also evident in the area of a semantic-philological choice of words and commentary. This problem has been noticed for some time. Beginning with James Barr’s Bible Exegesis and Modern Semantics (1965), the line continues through Moisés Silva and his Biblical words and their Meaning: An Introduction to Lexical Semantics ([1983] 1994). Peter Cotterell & Max Turnertake up their critical observations Linguistics & Biblical Interpretation (1989) and more recently John Lee in his A History of New Testament Lexicography (2003).26Barr, James 1961. The Semantics of Biblical Language. Oxford: Clarendon Press. [Dt.: Barr, James 1965. Bibelexegese und moderne Semantik: Theologische und linguistische Methode in der Bibelwissenschaft. München: Chr. Kaiser.]. Silva, Moisés [1983] 1994. Biblical words and their meaning. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Cotterell, Peter & Turner, Max 1989. Linguistics & Biblical Interpretation: How to Break Free from Bad Church Experience. Downers Grove: Inter Varsity Press. Lee, John Al 2003. A History of New Testament Lexicography. Studies in Biblical Greek 8. New York: Peter Lang. They point out that the interaction of Bible translations, lexicons and comments are subject to a circular conclusion. Once defined terms are stylized into sacred content and appear repeatedly, this also applies to grammatical and idiomatic content.27The example of the term σριστός Christos has already been mentioned (see FN 32). Böhm gives an example of the change from “Jewish” to “Judaic”. Böhm, Martina, Ursula 2016. Warum sich Josef nun (besser) in das judäische Land aufmacht und die Prophetin Hanna (leider) um 21 Jahre jünger geworden ist: Chancen und Probleme der Revision der Lutherbibel, an Beispielen aus dem Lukasevangelium gezeigt. Evangelische Theologie: Die Revision der Lutherbibel für das Jahr 2017, 76/4, 281-293. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. With each revision, the question that is asked repeatedly is to what extent one can or would like to break away from the source text. In the current tendency to stick to tried and tested structures (source text), the afore mentioned circular reasoning is hardly countered. Usually only text-critical changes are included, but they only affect the content and not the form. Jesus is no longer led “by the devil” into the desert, but is suddenly “in the desert”. The prophetess Hanna «was a widow of eighty-four years» while in Luther 1545 «« Vnd was only a widow / four and eighty-eighty years », that is 84 years a widow and thus 105 years of life when meeting the parents of Jesus (Böhm 2016:282-285).28Luke 4: 1: «But Jesus, full of the Holy Spirit, came back from the Jordan. And he was led around in the desert by the spirit (2) for forty days and tried by the devil … ». Another example from Lk 2:36. Here there is a difference in the age of the prophetess Hanna by 21 years. Regarding the prophetess Hanna, the 1545 Luther text says: “After her virginity, she had lived with her husband for seven years”, while in 1984 it was translated: “… she had lived with her husband for seven years after she married.” (Böhm 2016:248).

Revisions require linguistic expertise from native speakers, but are themselves subject to the hermeneutic circle and the Skopos (translation mandate) of the project, as the longstanding tradition prevents linguistic-cultural innovations.29«Overall, it can be said that the outdated words, which are either no longer understood or have changed their meaning, have a significant part in the sound of the Luther Bible. So it seems to be secondary whether the recipient has any chance of understanding the meaning at all – think of the ‹holdselig› »that has been cited again and again (Kocher 2016: 263). Those advise the native-speaking exegetes in the choice of words and syntactic content. Such experts are poets, writers or Germanists (linguists). The translation team is consequently made up of theological and linguistic experts.

The hurdles for revision translations are high because many participants have to be involved. In addition, financial and prestige-oriented reasons also play a role, so that publishers and auditors have an interest in having a product on offer as a long-term project and thereby making a name for themselves. The hurdles mentioned are so high because the revision committee is bound by decisions to develop, advice, examine and publish. This preparatory work is time-consuming, but the revision processes even more.30In detail Kähler 2016 (see FN 9), Kocher 2016 (see FN 15), Böhm 2016 (see FN 38).

The digitization of Bible translations and their tools also supports the work of the auditors, since the same text can be worked on at the same time and this can be populated with comments and formatting. The test runs can now take place on social media and quickly point out problems. Online Bibles such as the Volxbibel and the BasisBibel benefit from the constant revision process of a digital community that deals with the Bible text in a timely manner.

5. New Bible Translations – Framework Conditions

New Bible translations arise in contexts in which there are already mother tongue Bible translations. In these projects, the exegetical-theological ability is valued as more important than the ability to translate, because the exegesis of the base text is accompanied by the theological-exegetical examination of the same-language reference Bibles. New Bible translations stand out from the existing Bible translations due to a substantive or formal reorientation of a uniform translation. Four constituents generate new Bible translations.

a) Focus on a specific target audience (social segments; religious differentiation; e.g. Volxbibel 16-year-old; Roman Catholic readership),

b)  Application of a theoretical model of translation not yet used (e.g. Insel-Translation by Berger & Nord 1999 – functional approach; Turkish Kutsal Kitab see above 2001 – dynamic equivalence),

c)  Application of an already known translation theory (e.g. Good News Bible 1980 – dynamic equivalence)31Gute Nachricht Bibel(GNB) [1997] 2000. Im Auftrag und in Verantwortung der evangelischen Bibelgesellschaften und katholischen Bibelwerke in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Revidierte Fassung 1997, aus Anlass der neuen Rechtschreibung durchgesehen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.,

d) Use of a different or new translation style (e.g. das buch32das buch – Standardausgabe: Das Neue Testament 2009. Werner, Roland. Witten: SCM Brockhaus.) or media format (e.g. online Bibles such as the Volxbibel or the Basis Bibel33BasisB: Grund genug zu leben – Die Bibel interaktiv 2017. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft. Und Online: URL: http://www.basisbibel.de/basisbibel-online/­bibel­text [Stand 2017-04-06].).

Despite a realignment, there is a linguistic, exegetical and formal orientation towards the existing theological tradition. This has been initiated by an existing Bible translation or Bible translations for this language area. For example, Martin Luther and the theologians translating with him. The relevant German translations34More than 40 still used German translations are known. At least the Koberger Bible, the Zainer Bible and that of Hans Otmar were available to Luther and his translation team. Nevertheless, “the assumption that Luther used a late medieval Bible translation was refuted by research” (in Hövelmann 1989: 22). The Cologne Bible from 1480 was also known and known to theologians (Worth 1992: 42, 44). Worth, Roland H. jr. 1992. Bible Translations: A History through Source Documents. London: McFarland. of their time influenced the translation linguistically as well as by the exegetical aids known at the time (Haacker 2015:12; see FN 3). The fourfold sense of the script determined this late medieval epoch, from which a theoretical, a practical or a speculative Biblicism resulted. The Bible was considered the binding element of Church in its entire letters for all times (Hövelmann 1989:22-23). Added to this was Luther’s Christological approach, which was also reflected in the language. This is evident on many levels, especially on linguistic characteristics.35The terms «Savior» and «Tabernacle» have already been discussed above. This discussion includes the introduction of the Greek capital letter Χριστός Xristos «Christus» (e.g. Mt 1:16; see FN 32). From the Hebrew term משִׁיחַ meṣiaḥ “Messiah”, he developed through Greek Μεσσίας Messiah to the proper name in German. ψευδόχριστος pseudoxristos «false Christs» in Mt 24:24 and Mk 13:22. Here the term “false savior” would be more meaningful. Nevertheless, a footnote should indicate the antipode to Christ. Also other grammatical constructions are foundational to the «Luther tradition», like the well-known «und es begab sich aber» “(and) it happened (but)” (e.g. Genesis 4:3; 94x in LUT84), the νεανίσκος neaniskos «Jüngling» “young man” ( Genesis 4:23, Mark 16:5, etc .; 14x in LUT84; Thayer 3585) or the ζωὴ αἰώνιος zōë aiōnios «ewiges Leben» “eternal life” (e.g. Mt 19:29, Rom 6:23; 31x; Thayer 2365 and 172) . Insofar as later encyclopaedias and commentaries were inspired and guided by this tradition in the choice of words and interpretation, a hermeneutic circle has closed that has had an influence above all in the traditional churches.36Pasors (1622) Etyma nominum propriorum itemque analysis Hebraeorum, Syriacorum et Latinorum vocabulorum quae in novo testamento uspiam occurruntStand standPassow (1823) Dictionary of the Greek language Godfather. This in turn influenced Pape (1842), Schöttgen-Krebs-Spohn (1717 and 1790) and Wilke-Grimm1 (1868), Schleusner (1829) and Cremer (1867), Preuschen (1910) and Preuschen & Bauer (1923) and later Bauer3 (1937; Lee 2003: 8-11). Cremer became the template for Kittel (ThWNT1933-1979) and other biblical dictionaries (e.g. Bauer6 1988). Here are just the beginnings: Pasor, Georg [1622] 1686. Etyma nominum propriorum itemque analysis Hebraeorum, Syriacorum et Latinorum vocabulorum quae in novo testamento uspiam occurrunt. Orig. Herborn 1622. Further ed. Goslar, 1639; London, 1644. Leipzig: Sumptibus Joh. Friedrich Gleditsch. Passow, Franz [1823] 1993. Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 4 Bände. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Cremer, Hermann [1867] 1915. Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch der neutestamentlichen Gräcität. Gotha: F. A. Perthes. (10. Aufl., bearb. v. Kögel, Johannes. Gotha 1911-1915). [Engl.: Passow, Franz [1823] 1993. Dictionary of the Greek language. 4 volumes. Darmstadt: Scientific Book Society. Cremer, Hermann [1867] 1915. Biblical-theological dictionary of New Testament grace. Gotha: FA Perthes. (10th ed., Edited by Kögel, Johannes. Gotha 1911-1915)]. The biblical key concepts already mentioned have not been resolved linguistically to this day, although they have become incomprehensible or misleading. Here tradition is more important than intelligibility. Some new Bible translations want to break down these linguistic-cultural hurdles (e.g. Volxbibel, Bible in just language, New Geneva translation).

In the course of Christianization, a culture internalizes biblical content. This happens both through language and through religious and everyday customs. The public ecclesiastical life plays a role here as well as the individual faith of the individual.37This development is the reason why, due to the proclamation and the expansion of church structures, the German pantheon of gods slowly took a back seat. Such is observed wherever the biblical message takes root. Cultural practices are aligned with the biblical norm, which has a linguistic effect. An example is the formula “Grüß Gott”, a short form of “I greet you [in the name of] God” in the southern German dialects or countless proverbs. Obviously, we also find a derivation of Biblical greetings in the phrase. Over time, the contents become independent and lose all or part of their biblical-spiritual substance. Then a linguistic-conceptual renewal is necessary, which should also be reflected in the Bible translation.38One example is the development and interpretation of the term ἁμαρτία „failure” to hamartia «sin, guilt, transgression» (Thayer 277). In the ecclesiastical context, such a concept describes the “failure to achieve a life without reference to God”, while in everyday life this resulted in unreasonable actions (“I eat too much” – I sin against myself) or violations of moral norms (“she is bullying constantly”) (see German Duden entry “Sünde” sin).

New Bible translations have consciously or unconsciously turned away from such traditions. New language-theoretical or translational knowledge, religious demarcations or stylistic peculiarities motivate Bible translators to write their own Bible translation. The following rarely mentioned self-critical points should also be considered: a) the urge for self-expression, b) the enrichment of reading variations for religious groups and c) financial aspects. Religious works, individuals or groups are under high pressure of expectations. In some cases, self-portrayal (a) is stimulated in such a way that a new Bible translation is understood the only way out. In the case of organizations and institutions dealing with Bible translations or the distribution of Biblical products (publishers, societies, Christian works), this can lead them to starting projects themselves, encouraging or commissioning others to do so.

In the digital age, it is primarily target group-oriented Bible translations that aim at a certain smaller group of people (modern language, youth language, professional groups, and local groups). The idea of ​​contributing a linguistically stylistic translation of the Bible to the existing market (b) is not fundamentally new, but has recently taken on new forms due to the simplification of exegetical development, printing options and publication. Creation cycles of a few years for a New Testament are possible.

Financial aspects (c) go hand in hand with the self-presentation of the Bible translators, but they can also be a motivation in themselves. After all, Bible translations allow you to conquer a secure commercial market. Furthermore, a Bible translation enables a market to be tapped for a longer period. Similar to a comment or lexicon that has to be revised and reissued, a long-term project is formed that can be interesting for commercial institutions like editing houses.

Depending on the context of a project, new Bible translations fluctuate between high or low planning security. There are hardly any risks in contexts in which the required actors are integrated into fixed structures and the project is funded, but where the financing, the political situation or the tasks of the project are uncertain.

In the digital age, online Bibles offer an ideal platform to collectively design the creation process, test translation proposals and discuss the text. The project Open Bible39Offene Bibel. Online Bibel. 3 Bibeln in einem Projekt. Studienversion, Leichte Sprache, Lesefassung. Frankfurt: Offene Bibel e.V. Online: URL: http://www.offene-bibel.de/ [Stand 2020-08-30]. [Engl.: Open Bible. Online Bible. 3 Bibles in one project. Study Version. Easy Language. Reading variety. Frankfurt: Open Bible e. V.]. goes so far as to create several types of Bible translations at the same time in order to appeal to a wide range of users (study Bible, Bible in simple language and an utility Bible).

The reasons given here are not intended to reduce the value of a Bible translation, they only show the range of options for new Bible translations.

6. A Comparison – Overview

The comparison of all three types of Bible translation projects shows the following environmental variables:

1)   Socio-cultural background of a Bible translation project. Who’s the audience? A broad social class or micro-cultures (subculture), target group orientation, Christian or non-Christian context.

2)   Linguistic-cultural component. Which social and linguistic influences are taken into account, meet each other or which linguistic-cultural demands do people make in translation?

3)   Economic factors that create interests. Who finances the project and how does this influence the project workflow? Is it a long-term project with profit sharing by an organization (e.g. local Bible Society)?

4)   Skopos, project plan and process flows. Is theological-exegetical knowledge preferable to translation skills? Are specific translation theories applied? These points must be determined in advance in all translation projects. They bind the participants together and serve to advise and solve problems. In case of high fluctuation in the project, they are important to the integration of new participants.

If you go through these points, Bible translations as revisions are positioned on the socio-religious micro level by looking through existing ones, changing them (shortening, adding, reformulating) and adapting them stylistically to language changes. The base text is already anchored in an environment, where it fulfills the religious expectations of believers. Theological-exegetical knowledge is superior to the ability to translate in the mother tongue.

First Bible translations move on the socio-religious macro level, since they have to conceive new and create new environmental variables in order to anchor the translation in an existing context.

New Bible translations operate both on the religious-social micro and on the macro level. They attract an audience that moves out of a religious environment and turns to new forms of well-known content. However, new Bible translations operate in a religiously influenced environment that the genre Bible translation is familiar.

In all three types, the Bible text can be changed (conditionally). Change, adaptation to linguistic-cultural innovations and thus transfer is rated positively. Texts are not so stable in themselves that they communicate undamaged over long periods. The processes of all three types are easier to design in the digital age. Social media simplify production, distribution and ongoing communication and special computer programs, can take place online promptly, and localized.

7. Conclusion and Outlook

In this article, I have outlined the broad features and the standards by which first, new, and Bible translations as revisions should be defined. Not everything was discussed by far, but the obvious basic features, similarities and differences were worked out.

The most striking thing was that new Bible translations are in contrast with the other two types and therefore occupy an intermediate position. However, they are more based on Bible translations as revisions because they take place in an environment that understands the genre “Bible translation”. New Bible translations stimulate revisions and first Bible translations because they offer the theologically experienced experts new missiological, theological, sociological, translational, anthropological and linguistic approaches.

First Bible translations take place in contexts for which the genre Bible translation was previously unknown or which reject Christian interventions. The project is about an emerging or already existing but small Christian community (minority), for whom the mother tongue translation of biblical content in oral or written form is important. The extinction and preservation (preservation or revitalization) of the mother tongue, the establishment and expansion of organizational structures (management structure, evangelization centers), the limitation to local social groups (different religion, different Christian understanding) or the participation in the global body of Christ can be motivational. The ability to transfer foreign content into one’s own context outweighs the slowly developing knowledge of theological-exegetical analysis. In consequence, local theologies are emerging. First Bible translations stimulate with their missiological approach Bible translations as revisions and new Bible translations, because they are guided by the communicative orientation in socio-religious terms.

An existing Christian community and its theology, on the other hand, form Bible translations as revisions. They change the external form of a tried and tested translation of the Bible, but leave the history of the reception or the tradition of the style. Knowledge of textual criticism and moderate stylistic adjustments to linguistic-cultural changes form the outermost interventions accepted by the corpus of the faithful. Theological-exegetical knowledge has top priority. Bible translations as revisions stimulate new Bible translations and first Bible translations by entering the latest scientific knowledge into a translation, which can serve as a reference for translators who are native speakers.

What all three types have in common is that they benefit from the digital age. Processes are accelerated, decentralized and can take place independent of time and space. Digitalization enables several translators to work on one text at the same time.

The three types differ fundamentally in the composition of the parties involved. Native-language translators form the core of first Bible translation. Around them consultants and project managers are grouping as an ideal that is often not put in reality. In Bible translations as revisions and new Bible translations native-speaking theological experts are involved. The objectives of the types also differ. First translations emphasize the mother tongue and bring new, previously unknown concepts into a linguistic-cultural context. Bible translations as revisions, on the other hand, build on and continue an existing translational tradition, whereby formal changes, such as adaptation to colloquial language, acquisition of text-critical knowledge, but no content-related ones are possible. New translations of the Bible break through these traditions, but are at the same time delivered to them to a certain extent, since they operate in the same linguistic-cultural range.

In the area of ​​the creative development of translation theories, there is a mutual interaction of all three types. All Bible translations are about balancing “intelligibility” and “fidelity to text” against each other, the experiences made are interesting for everyone involved, regardless of whether they are exegetical, interpersonal or linguistic. It is particularly important for Bible translations as revisions that mother tongue projects attach importance to “intelligibility” in their mostly non-Christian environment. Those groups of a population that are not addressed in Bible translations as revisions only play a minor role in translational considerations. Conversely, from the history of Bible translations as revisions, first Bible translations learn to recognize the product as the origin of a translational tradition that only unfolds in the course of its development. In conclusion, it can be said that there is no “right” Bible translation. Instead, a Bible translation is not right from its start, but “Bible translation is a professional performance” and other translations of the Bible are developing over the formation of clerical structures.

One area that the three types have to balance is the emphasis on translational skills as opposed to theological-exegetical considerations. This area is particularly important to the introduction of existing theologies in the case of revisions and new Bible translations as well as the development of theologies in case of first Bible translations. Both should flow into the translation in a balanced way, with accurate translations serving the communicative goal the most. Especially in contexts in which Bible translations already exist, new translations are usually only criticized for their (inadequate) theological-exegetical analysis, which in turn often emphasizes the translational area in the sense of a target group-oriented communicative Skopos.40The theological report on the Bible in just language argues only on the theological-exegetical level and the effects on local (Western Reformation) theology. The enrichments at the information level, e.g. that God’s sexlessness is perceived as disturbing (Wilckens 2007: 135-136). Wilckens, Ulrich 2007. Theologisches Gutachten zur “Bibel in gerechter Sprache”. Theologische beiträge. 03/38, 135-151. Haan: Brockhaus. [Engl.: Theological report on the “Bible in just language”. Theological articles.].

Appendix

Type

Content

Interfaces and differences – a comparison

First Bible Translation

(FBT)

a) Audience: focus on a specific target audience – target group-oriented approach. Interested in native speakers who are open to inter-religious experience.

b) Project management (management, financing and advice) comes from outside, native-speaking translators are from the ethnic group.

c) Environmental variables: Bible translation as a Christian venture is viewed critically or rejected.

d) Language level: Depending on the target audience, but mostly everyday language of the middle class.

e) Digitization: Numerous Bible translation programs for exegetical editing, translation and distribution.

– Danger of paternalism and neo-colonialism as management and expertise come from outside.

– Expectations from outsiders are high (donors, translation consultants, etc.).

– Agreement about the process flows needed, in particular the translation by native translators, consultant functions and publication processes (written, digital, online).

– Ability to transfer foreign content into one’s own context predominates.

– Low security on planning: project plan precisely defined, but the actors can change quickly.

– Audience is inexperienced and therefore sometimes un- or supercritical.

– The focus is on a source text that communicates the biblical message in an understandable form to the mother-tongue church / social community.

Bible Translation

as Revision

(RBT)

 

a) Audience: Christian audience. Genre Bible translation is well known.

b) Skopos: review, revision of an existing text. Continuation of a history of tradition.

c) Language level: Upscaling to everyday language.

d) Digitization: Programs that enable simultaneous work and document the ongoing translation process are important.

– High level of planning security thanks to a sophisticated project plan, all actors know their roles.

– Expectation pressure from all sides is high.

– Theological-exegetical knowledge has the highest priority.

– Audience has high expectations.

– The focus is on a text that covers scientific issues and continues a church tradition.

New Bible translation

(NBT)

 

a) Audience: Christian audience. Genre Bible translation is well known.

b) Skopos: focus on a specific target audience – target group-oriented approach (social segments; religious differentiation; e.g. Volxbibel 16-year-olds, Einheitsübersetzung – Roman Catholic readership),

c) Language level: Depending on the target group.

d) Application of a theoretical model of translation not yet used (e.g. island translation by Berger & Nord 1999 see above),

e) Application of a known translation theory (e.g. Good News Bible 1980 by dynamic equivalence),

f) Use of a different or new translation style (e.g. the book) or media format (e.g. online Bible such as the Open Bible, Volxbibel or the Basic Bible).

g) Digitization: Numerous Bible translation programs for exegetical editing, translation and distribution.

 

– Audience knows the genre of Bible translation (s), but usually does not expect much.

– Integration of scientific knowledge, but also new methods of translation flow into the translation.

– Initiator (s) mostly follow new approaches and are therefore freer to make their decisions.

– The product differs from existing Bible translations, which is viewed critically by the existing church.

– Interaction between theological-exegetical knowledge and ability to translate in the mother tongue.

 

 

Bible translation

/in

The science of Bible translation develops out of Bible sciences and combines research from the science of translation, anthropology, linguistics, social sciences and other disciplines. A growing group of scholars is interested to combine these disciplines for the good of Bible translation efforts. The historical development of Bible translation starting shortly after the establishment of the Church and focusing on big language groups moved towards an own movement in the 20th century, now addressing smaller ethnicities and language groups. Its interdisciplinarity and professionality made it to a global movement reaching out to ethnicities, as well as small social units. The globally gained linguistic, translational and social experience is increasingly noticed by computational linguistics, neurolinguistics and modern communication sciences.

Available Publications

Book: The Mandate of Bible Translation: Bible Translation – Theory and Practice Bible Translation Theory and Practice EberhardWerner

Article: Bibelübersetzung und Ethik [Bible translation and ethics] – Bibelübersetzung und Ethik em Eberhard Werner (German)

Article: Das Wesen der Bibelübersetzung: ethische Überlegungen [The essence of Bible translation: ethical consideration – Das Wesen der Bibelübersetzung – ethische praktische Überlegungen (German)

Article: Die Türkei – unser Nachbar [Turkey – our neighbour] – WdS Türkei unser Nachbar (German)

Article: Consultation – ethical considerations – Werner – Code of ethics

Article: Missiologische Überlegungen zur Bibelübersetzung im Nahen Osten [Missiological Considerations on Bible tranlsation in the Near East] – Missiologische Überlegungen – Bibelübersetzung im Nahen Osten (German)

References to Bible translation (incomplete)

  • German Bible translations – Deutsche Bibelübersetzungen –
  •  Internation Bible translations and Base texts – Internationale Bibeln und Grundtexte –
  • Scandinavian Bible translation (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Rinland, Iceland) – Skandinavische Bibeln (Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden, Finnland, Island)
  • Turkish Bible translations – Türkische Bibeln –
  • Exegetical Tools (Commentaries) – Exegetische Hilfsmittel (Kommentare) –
  • Works of Eugene A. Nida (partially in cooperation) – Eugene A. Nidas Werke (teilweise in Kooperation mit anderen) –

German Bible translations (Deutsche Bibelübersetzungen)

BasisB(ibel): Grund genug zu leben – Die Bibel interaktiv. Neues Testament 2010. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­­sell­schaft. Und Online: URL: http://www.basisbibel.de/basisbibel-online/­bibel­text/ [Stand 2012-06-06].

Begegnung fürs Leben – Die Studienbibel für jeden Tag: Neues Testament 2003. Holz­gerl­ing­en: Hänssler.

Bibel in gerechter Sprache (BigS) [2006] 2011. Bail, Ulrike u. a. 2. rev. Aufl. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. Und Online: URL: http://www.bibel-in-gerechter-sprache.de/ [Stand 2017-04-20].

Bail, Ulrike u. a. [2006] 2011. Bibel in gerechter Sprache (BigS). 2. rev. Aufl. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

DaBhaR – DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Alten Bundes und DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Neuen Bundes 1989. 2. Bde. Baader, Fritz Henning. Schömberg: Eigenverlag.

Das Alte Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Hebräisch-Deutsch 2003. Steurer, Rita Maria. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Steurer, Rita Maria 2003. Das Alte Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Hebräisch-Deutsch. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

das buch – Standardausgabe: Das Neue Testament 2009. Werner, Roland. Witten: SCM Brockhaus. (HB in Bearbeitung – Ausgabe als Einheitswerk geplant).

Das jüdische Neue Testament: Eine Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments, die seiner jüdischen Herkunft Rechnung trägt 1995. Stern, David H. Neuhausen: Hänssler.

Das Neue Testament 1925. Dimmler, Emil. Mönchen-Gladbach: Volksvereins-Verlag.

Das Neue Testament 1938. Rösch, Konstantin. O.M.Cap. Pader­born: Schöningh.

Das Neue Testament 1970. Wilckens, Ulrich. Hamburg: Furche.

Das Neue Testament 2000. Zink, Jörg. Stuttgart: Kreuz.

Das Neue Testament (NeÜ): Neue evangelistische Übertragung 2003. Vanheiden, Karl-Heinz. Dillenburg: Christliche Verlagsgesellschaft.

Das Neue Testament in der Sprache der Gegenwart 1988. Paul, Jonathan. 9. Aufl. Niedenstein: Missionsverlag des Missionsvereins Mülheim an der Ruhr e.V.

Das Neue Testament in die Sprache der Gegenwart 1999. Ludwig, Albrecht. Basel/Gießen: Brunnen.

Das Neue Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Griechisch-Deutsch 2003. Dietzfelbinger, Ernst. Holz­gerlingen: Hänssler.

Das Neue Testament nach Martin Luther 1975 1989. Revidierter Text. Stuttgart. Deutsche Bibel­­gesellschaft.

Das Neue Testament und frühchristliche Schriften – neu übersetzt und kommentiert (INSEL). Berger, Klaus & Nord, Christiane 1999. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Insel.

Die Bibel mit Erklärungen 2005. Bruns, Hans. Gießen: Brunnen.

Die Bibel nach dem hebräischen und griechischen Grundtext (SCH/SCL) [1951] 2002. Schlachter, Franz Eugen. Zürich: Genfer Bibelgesellschaft/ Bielefeld Christliche Literatur-Verbreitung.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der deutschen Über­setzung Martin Luthers 1545 2012 (L45). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1912 2001. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1984 1985. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­gesell­schaft.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der deutschen Über­setzung Martin Luthers 1908. Elberfeld: Bergische Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der Über­setzung Martin Luthers. Revidierter Text 1975. 1978. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung.

Das Neue Testament unseres Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi nach der deutschen Über­setz­ung D. Martin Luthers 1934. Neu durchgesehen nach dem vom Deutschen Evang­el­ischen Kir­chen­ausschuß genehmigten Text. Stuttgart: Privilegierte Würt­tem­berg­ische Bibelanstalt.

Das Neue Testament unseres Herrn und Heilandes Jesus Christus, nach der deutschen Über­setz­ung D. Martin Luther 1956. Revidierter Text. Stuttgart: Privilegierte Württem­bergische Bibel­anstalt.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1984. Hrsg. von der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Revidierte Fassung; aus Anlass der neuen Rechtschreibung durchgesehen 1999. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel nach Martin Luthers Übersetzung. Lutherbibel Revidiert 2017 mit Apokryphen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Luther 2017, Lutherübersetzung 2017

Die fünf Bücher der Weisung [1954] 1992. Verdeutscht von Buber, Martin & Rosenzweig, Franz. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments 1994. Menge, Herrmann. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments (ZUR) [2003] 2007/2008. Rev. und überarbeitet Ausgabe. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments, aus der Vulgata mit Bezug auf den Grund­text übersetzt 1957. Allioli, Joseph Franz (katholischer Dom­propst in Augsburg). Wien: Bri­tische und Ausländische Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift. Familienbibel: Altes und Neues Testament 1966. Hamp, Vinzenz, Stenzel, Meinrad & Kürzinger Josef. Vollständige Ausgabe nach den Grundtexten. Aschaf­fen­burg­/­Stutt­gart: Pattloch. [Und als CD-ROM].

Die Heilige Schrift [1954] 1995. Tur-Sinai, Naftali Herz (H. Torczyner). Neu ins Deutsche über­tragen. 4 Bde. Jerusalem/Neuhausen: Hänssler.

Die Schriftwerke [1962] 1992. Buber, Martin & Rosenzweig, Franz. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sel­lschaft.

Die vier Evangelien: Matthäus, Markus, Lukas, Johannes. Jens, Walter 1998. Stuttgart: Radius.

Die vierundzwanzig Bücher der Heiligen Schrift nach dem masoretischen Text [1837] 1980. Zunz, Leopold. Nachdruck. Basel: Victor Goldschmidt.

Die Volxbibel – Neues Testament 2005. Dreyer, Martin. Witten: Volxbibel. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-01-20].

Die Volxbibel – Altes Testament I: Mose – Esther 2009. Dreyer, Martin. München: Droemer Knaur. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-11-20].

Die Volxbibel – Altes Testament II: Hiob – Maleachi 2010. Dreyer, Martin. München: Droemer Knaur. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-11-20].

Einheitsübersetzung: Die Bibel – Altes und Neues Testament (EIN) 1980. Stuttgart: Katholische Bibel­anstalt.

Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift (EIN) 1980. Hrsg. im Auftrag der Bischöfe Deutschlands, Österreichs, der Schweiz, der Bischöfe von Luxemburg, von Lüttich und von Bozen-Brixen (Psalmen und Neues Testament auch im Auftrag des Rates der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland). Stuttgart: Katholische Bibelanstalt.

Die Bibel – Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift 2016. Gesamtausgabe. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk. Einheitsübersetzung 2016.

Elberfelder Bibel (ELO) [1905] 2006. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. (Elberfelder Übersetzung in alter, nicht über­ar­beit­eter Fassung von 1905. Hückeswagen: Christliche Schriftenverbreitung).

Genfer Studienbibel 1999. Sproul, Robert Charles. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Gute Nachricht Bibel (GNB) 1997. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Nachfolger der Bibel in heutigem Deutsch 1982.

Gute Nachricht Bibel (GNB) [1997] 2000. Im Auftrag und in Verantwortung der evangelischen Bibelgesellschaften und katholischen Bibelwerke in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Revidierte Fassung 1997, aus Anlass der neuen Rechtschreibung durchgesehen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Hoffnung für alle. Die Bibel (HfA) [1996] 2002. Basel und Gießen: Brunnen.

Hoffnung für alle: Die Bibel (HfA) 2002. Basel/Gießen: Brunnen.

King James Version (KJV) [1611] 2008. With Apocrypha. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Konkordantes Neues Testament (KonkNT) [1939] 1995. Knoch, Adolph Ernst. Birkenfeld: Konkordanter Verlag Pforzheim.

Lukas für Teens – Das Evangelium erfrischend neu erzählt 2004. Wilkes, Andre. Wuppertal: Oncken.

Neue Genfer Übersetzung – Neues Testament (NGÜ) 2009. Zürich: Genfer Bibel­gesell­schaft/Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Neue Genfer Übersetzung – Neues Testament und Psalmen (NGÜ) 2015. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Münchner Neues Testament (MNT) [1988] 2007. Hainz, Josef. 8. Aufl. Düsseldorf: Patmos.

Neue Jeru­salemer Bibel: Einheitsübersetzung mit dem Kommentar der Jerusalemer Bibel 2005. Deissler, Alfons, Vögtle, Anton & Nützel, Johannes M. (Hgg.). Frei­burg: Herder.

Neues Leben: Die Bibel 2005. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler. (engl. New Living Translation. Carol Stream: Tyndale).

Neue-Welt-Übersetzung der Heiligen Schrift (NWÜ/NWT) [revidiert 1986] 1997. Selters/Taunus: Wachtturm Bibel- u. Traktat-Gesellschaft. (engl. New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. NT 1950, whole Bible 1961. Pennsylvania: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society).

Neue Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 2007/2008. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Neues Testament 1938. Storr, Rupert. Stuttgart: Schwabenverlag.

Offene Bibel. Online Bibel. 3 Bibeln in einem Projekt. Studienversion, Leichte Sprache, Lesefassung. Frankfurt: Offene Bibel e.V. Online: URL: http://www.offene-bibel.de/ [Stand 2017-04-30].

Revidierte Elberfelder Bibel (ELB) 1992. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. (Die Heilige Schrift. Elberfelder Über­setzung Edition CSV Hückeswagen.

The New Testament in the Original Greek. Byzantine Text Form, 2005. Compiled and arranged by Robinson, Maurice A. & Pierpont, William G. BibleWorks 9 von 2013. [Dt. Das Neue Testament im Original Griechisch. Byzantinische Textform.]. BYZ

Scofield-Bibel. Revidierte Elberfelder Übersetzung mit Einleitungen, Erklärungen und Ketten-An­gaben 1992. Scofield, Cyrus I. (Hg.). Autorisierte deutsche Übersetzung Gertrud Was­serzug-Traeder. Wuppertal-Zürich: Brockhaus.

Unrevidierte Elberfelder Bibel (ELO) [1855] 1905. Haan: Brockhaus.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 1931. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 1987. Kirchenrat des Kantons Zürich (Hg.). 19. Aufl. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) [1931] 2007. Hrsg. vom Kirchenrat der Evangelisch-reformierten Landeskirche des Kantons Zürich. Zürich: Genossenschaft Verlag der Zürcher Bibel beim Theologischen Verlag Zürich.

International Bible translations and Base texts – Internationale Bibeln und Grundtexte –

American Standard Version [1901] 1988. The Holy Bible based upon the Hebrew Masoretic text for the OT and upon the Westcott-Hort Greek text for the NT. Oklahoma City: Ellis Enterprises. (ASV) (Siehe RSV / NRSV)

Bibel 2011. Oslo: Norwegian Bible Society.

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia [1909] 1990. Hg. R. Kittel, unter Mitarbeit von A. Alt, O. Eißfeldt, P. Kahle. 4. verb. Aufl. verkleinerte Ausga­be. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia [1909] 1990. Kittel, Rudolf (ed.) in assistance of Alt, A., Eißfeldt, O. & Kahle, P. 4th rev. ed. Small edition. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (Hg.) 2011. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Reihe: bibel digital, Stuttgart 2011.

Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (Hg.) 2011. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Reihe: bibel digital, Stuttgart 2011; sowie Hardmeier, Ch., Talstra, E. & Groves, A. (Hgg.) 2009. Stuttgarter Elektronische Studienbibel (SESB) 3.0. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Hardmeier, Ch., Talstra, E. & Groves, A. (Hgg.) 2009. Stuttgarter Elektronische Studienbibel (SESB) 3.0. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.
Hendel, R. 2008. The Oxford Hebrew Bible. Prologue to a New Critical Edition. VT 58, 324-351.

Schenker, A. & u. a. (Hgg.) 2004-. Biblia Hebraica Quinta. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. (bisher erschienen: Fascicle 18: General Introduction and Megilloth, 2004; Fascicle 20: Ezra and Nehemiah, 2006; Fascicle 5: Deuteronomy, 2007; Fascicle 17: Proverbs, 2008; Fascicle 13: The Twelve Minor Prophets, 2010; Fascicle 7: Judges, 2011).

Freedman, David Noel, Beck, Astrid B. & Sanders, James A. (eds.) 1998. The Leningrad Codex. A Facsimile Edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 4. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (Hgg.). Nestle-Aland 27. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2014. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 5. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2014. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, et al (ed.). 5. ed. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2013. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 28. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Novum Testamentum Greace 28th ed. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt et al. (eds.). Stuttgart: United Bible Societies and German Bible Society. (GNT – The Greek New Testament (GNT), Ed. by Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, and Allen Wikgren, in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Münster/Westphalia, Fourth Edition (with exactly the same text as the Nestle-Aland 27th Edition of the Greek New Testament), Copyright © 1966, 1968, 1975 by the United Bible Societies (UBS) and 1993, 1994 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), Stuttgart.)

Good News Bible: The Bible in Today’s English Version [1976] 2004. Nida, Eugen A. (ed.). New York: American Bible Society. (Also called Today’s English Version (TEV).) (GNB / GNV)

Göttinger Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hg.) 1926-. Septuaginta. Vetus Testamentum Graecum, Göttingen. (noch nicht abgeschlossene Septuaginta-Ausgabe in Einzelbänden).

Fox, Everett 1995. The Five Books of Moses. The Schocken Bible 1. New York: Schocken.

King James Version [1611] 2008. With Apocrypha. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (KJV).

New English Translation 2005. Online: URL: http://netbible.com/content/download [accessed 2014-07-28]. (NET)

New King James Version 1982. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. (NKJV)

New Living Translation [1996] 2004. The Holy Bible. Wheaton: Tyndale Charitable Trust.

Revised Standard Version [1946] 1973. The Holy Bible. Authorized revision of the American Standard Version. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. (RSV) (s. ASV und NRSV)

The English Darby Bible [1884/1890] 1997. Darby, John Nelson. Ontario: Woodside Fellowship of Ontario.

The New International Version [1973] 1984 (NIV). Grand Rapids: Zondervan. (NIV / NIB) New International Bible

The New Revised Standard Version 1989. New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. (s. ASV / RSV )

Vulgate 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: German Bible Society.

Vulgata [1969] 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Lateinische Vulgata). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. (VUL – Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, Vulgate Latin Bible (VUL), Ed. by R. Weber, B. Fischer, J. Gribomont, H.F.D. Sparks, and W. Thiele [at Beuron and Tuebingen] Copyright © 1969, 1975, 1983 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society).

Scandianvian Bible translation Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland) – Skandinavische Bibeln (Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden, Finnland, Island)

1. Denmark – Dänemark

Hans Tausens Oversæettelse of De fern Mosebøger [Die Übersetzung der Fünf Bücher Mose von Hans Tausen; 1535] (udg. af [hg. von] Det danskske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab; København, 1932).

Christian den Tredies Bibel. Den første danske Bibel [Die Bibel des Christian III. Die erste dänische Bibel; 1550]. Facsimile-Udgave (udg. af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab; København, 1928).

Biblia Det er/Den gantske Hellige Scrifft/paa Danske (København, 1589) [Die Bibel des Frederik II.]

Biblia, Paa Danske / Det er / Den gantske hellige scriftis Bøgger (København, 1607 [Die Bibel Resens].

Biblia Det er/Den gantske Hellige Scrifft/paa Danske (Kobenhavn, 1633) [Die Bibel des Christian IV.]

Biblia, Paa Danske / Det er: Den gandske hellige Skriftis Bøgger (København, 1647) [Die resen-svaningsche Bibel].

Biblia, det er den gantske Hellige Skrift, paa Danske (København, 1670).

Biblia, Det er Den gandske Hellige Skriftes Bøger (5. Aufl.; København, 1670) Die Bibel des Christian VI.]

Biblia, det er den ganske Hellige Skrifts Bøger (16. Aufl.; København, 1819) [Die 1819-Übersetzung].

Prøver af en ny dansk Oversættelse af det Gamle Testamente (København, 1845) [Proben einer Neuübersetzung des Alten Testaments].

Bibelen, det er: den ganske Hellige Skrifts Bøger (København, 1871) [Die 1871-Übersetzung].

Bibelen, det er den ganske hellige Skrifts Bøger (København, 1907) [Die 1907-Übersetzung].

Bibelen. Den hellige Sknfts kanoniske Bøger (København, 1948) [Die 1948-Übersetzung].

Davids Salmer. Det gamle Testamente i ny oversættelse (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1980).

Det Nye Testamente i ny oversættelse (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1989).

Bibelen. Den hellige Skrifts kanoniske Boger. Autoriseret af Hendes Majestæt Dronning Margrethe II (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1993).

2. Finland – Finnland

Mikael Agricolan teokset 1-4 [Mikael Agricolas Werke 1-4; Faksimile] (Helsinki, 1987).

Biblia, Se on: Coco Pyhä Ramattu, Suomexi [Die Bibel, das ist: Die Ganze Heilige Schrift, auf Finnisch] (Stockholm, 1642) [Faksimile: Porvoo, 1985].

Biblia, Se on: Koko Pyhä Raamattu, Suomexi (Turku, 1776).

Biblia, Se on: Koko Pyhä Raamattu, Suomexi (Turku, 1852).

Biblia, Se on Koko Pyhä Raamattu. Wanhaja Uusi Testamentti. Alkuraamattuin jdlkeen uudestansa ojennettu [Die Bibel, das ist Die Ganze Heilige Schrift. Altes und Neues Testament. Nach den Urbibeln neu ausgerichtet] (Helsinki, 1859).

Pyhä Raamattu. Vanha Testamentti yhdennentoista, vuonna 1933 pidetyn yleisen Kirkolliskokouksen kdytdntoon ottamcna suomennos. Uusi Testamentti kahdennen toista, vuonna 1938 pidetyn KirkoUiskokouksen kdytdntoon ottama suomennos [Die Heilige Bibel. Das Alte Testament,

von der elften allgemeinen Synode im Jahre 1933 in Gebrauch genommen. Das Neue Testament, von der zwölften allgemeinen Synode im Jahre 1938 in Gebrauch genommen] (Sortavala, 1938).

Uusi testamentti nykysoumeksi [Das Neue Testament im populären Finnisch] (Pieksamaki, 1972).

Pyhä Raamattu. Vanha Testamenti. Uusi Testamenti. Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon kirkolliskokouksen vuonna 1992 käyttöön ottama suomennos [Die Heilige Bibel. Das Alte Testament. Das Neue Testament. Finnische Übersetzung der finnisehen evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, von der Synode des Jahres 1992 in Gebrauch genommen] (Mikkeli: Suomen Pibliaseura [Mikkeli: Die finnische Bibelgesellschaft], 1992).

3. Iceland – Island

Thetta er hid Nyja Testament Jesú Krists (Prentad í Hróarskeldu [Gedruckt in Roskilde [Dänemark]], 1540).

Bibíta, thad er øll heilög ritning útlögd á norrænu med formálum Doct. Martini Lutheran [Biblia, das ist die ganze heilige Schrift, übertragen ins Altnordische nach dem Vorbild Luthers] (Prentad á Hólum [Island], 1584) [die erste isländische Bibelausgabe, »die Gudbrands Bibel«; als die größte Kostbarkeit isländischen Buchgewerbs betrachtet].

Bibíta, thad er øll heilög ritning útlögd á norrænu … (Prentad ad nyju [aufs neue] á Hólum, 1644) [die 2. Bibelausgabe, »die Thorláks (d. i. Bischop Thorlákur Skúlason) Bibel«].

Bibíta, thad er øll Heilög Ritning (Hólum i Hjaltadal, 1728) [3. Ausgabe, »die Steins (d. i. Bischop Steinn Jónsson) Bibel«].

Bibíta, thad er øll Heilög Ritning útlögd á Norrænu (Prentud í Kaupmannahöfn [Kopöenhagen] 1747) [4. Ausgabe, »die Waisenhaus Bibel«].

Biblia, thad er Aull heilaug Ritning útlaugd á Íslensku (Kaupmannahöfn, 1813) [5. Ausgabe, »die Henderson Bibel«; Ebeneser Henderson war 1815 der Gründer der Bibelgesellschaft in Island].

Biblia, thad er Heilög Ritning (Videyjar Klaustri, 1841) [6. Ausgabe, »die Videy Bibel«; die erste Ausgabe der Isländischen Bibelgesellschaft; rev. Übersetzung].

Biblia, thad er øII Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1859) [7. Ausgabe, Nachdruck der 6. Ausgabe, »die Reykjavik Ausgabe«; die Apokryphen zum letzten Mal in in der isländischen Bibel gedruckt].

Biblia, thad er Heilög ritning (London, 1866) [8. Ausgabe, »die London Bibel«; auf Kosten der British and Foreign Bible Society gedruckt].

Biblia, thad er Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1912) [9- Ausgabe; neue Übersetzung aus den Originalsprachen, zuerst 1908 in Reykjavik gedruckt, sodann 1912 mit einigen Korrekturen nachgedruckt; Taschenausgabe 1914].

Biblian. Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1981 [10. Ausgabe; teilweise (im NT) neu übersetzt, teilweise revidiert; in Island gesetzt, aber in Stuttgart gedruckt].

(»Bibel 2000«. Eine neue Übersetzung aus den Originalsprachen wurde 1988 angefangen.)

4. Norway – Norwegen

Stjom. Gammel-Norsk Bibelhistorie fra Verdens Skabelse til det babyloniske Fangenskab [Stjorn: Altnorwegische Bibel(geschichte) von der Schöpfung der Welt bis zur babylonischen Gefangenschaft] (utg. av [hg. von] Carl R. Unger; Christiania Oslo]: Feilberg & Landmark, 1853/1862).

Stjórn. AM227fol (ed. Jón Helgason; Corpus codicum islandicorum medii aevi, 20; København: Levin & Munksgaard, 1956).

[Für den Zeitraum zwischen der Reformation und dem Jahr 1816 siehe unter Dänemark]

Vor Herres og Frelseres Jesu Christi nye Testamente (Christiania [Oslo]: Det norske Bibelselskab, 1819).

Hærramek ja bæsstamek Jesus Kristus ådda testament (Kristianast, 1840) [die erste Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments in der Sprache der Lappen].

Bibelen eller Den Heilige Skrift, indeholdende det Gamle og Nye Testamentes kanoniske Bøger. Tilligemed det Gamle Testamentes apokryfiske Bøger (Christiania: Bibelselskabet, 1854).

Det nye Testamentet. Umsett fraa den greske Grunntekst paa norsk Folkemaal (Christiania: Det norske Samlaget, 1889) [die erste neunorwegische Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments].

Bibelen (Kristiania: Det norske Bibelselskab, 1891) [erste Bibelausgabe mit einer neuen Übersetzung des ATs aus den Grundtexten, angefangen in 1842, vollführt in 1888].

Det nye Testamentet Ny, gjennomsedd Utgaava av den fyrste Landsmaals-Umsetjing (Kristiania: Bibelselskabet, 1899) [rev. Ausgabe der neunorw. Übersetzung des NTs, nun von der Bibelgesellschaft herausgegeben].

Bibelen eller Den Heilige Skrift (Kristiania: Bibelselskabet, 1904) [erste vollständige norw. Übersetzung der ganzen Bibel aus dem Grundtext].

Bibelen eller Den heilage skrifti Dei kanoniske bøkerne i Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Oslo: Studentmaallaget i Oslo, 1921).

Bibelen eller Den Hellige Skrift. Det gamle og Det nye testamentes kanoniske bøker (Revidert oversettelse [rev. Übers.]; Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1930).

Bibelen eller Den heilage skrifti Dei kanoniske bøkene i Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Revidera umsetjing [rev. neunorw. Übers.]; Oslo:Bibelselskapet, 1938).

Det nye testamente. Oversattfor ungdom [NT für die Jugend übersetzt] (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1959) [die entsprechende neunorwegische Ausgabe in 1961].

Utvalg av Det gamle testamente. Oversettelse av 1966 [Auswahl aus dem AT] (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1966) [die entsprechende neunorw. Version: Utval or Det gamle testamentet Omsetjing frå 1966 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1966)].

Salmenes Bok. Ny oversettelse av 1967 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1967)

Det nye testamente, oversatt fra gresk av Erik Gunnes med innledninger og kommentarer (Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, 1969) [private Übersetzung des katholisehen Paters E. G., mit Einleitungen und Kommentaren].

Det nye testamente på moderne norsk. Oversatt fra den greske grunntekst (Kristiansand: Acta Forlag, 1973) [private, konservative Übersetzung].

Det nye testamente. Ny oversettelse av 1975 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1975) [die entsprechende neunorwegische Version: Det nye testamentet. Ny omsetjing 1975 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1975)].

Den Heilige Skrift Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamente (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1978; 2. utgave [2., leicht revidierte Ausgabe], 1985).

Den Heilage Skrifta Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1978; 2. utgåva, 1985) [die neunorw. Version].

Bibelen, Den Hellige Skrift. Det gamle og det nye testamentes kanoniske bøker. Oversettelse 1988 (Oslo: Norsk Bibel, 1988) [private Übersetzung konservativen Charakters, die der 1930-Ausgabe der Bibelgesellschaft sehr ähnlich ist; von C. F. Wissløff, A. Berg und T. Gilbrant übersetzt].

Det gamle testamentes Apokryfiske Bøker. De deuterokanoniske bøker (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1988) [neue und ökumenische Übersetzung der Apokryphen, mit einem Anhang einiger Pseudepigraphischer Schriften].

Den Hellige Skrift Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamente med de Apokryfiske bøker (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1994).

Salmenes Bok (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1995) [revidierte Ausgabe für den liturgisehen Gebrauch.

5. Sweden – Schweden

Iesus. Thet Nyia Testamentit på Swensko (Stockholm, 1526).

Biblia/Thet är/All then Helgha Scrifft/på Swensko (Uppsala, 1540-1541) [die Gustav Vasa-Bibel].

Prof-Öfwersättning af thet Nya Testamentet, på Hans Kongl. Maj:ts Nådigsta befallning, författad af then till… förordnade särskilda Commission [Probe-Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments, auf Seiner Königl. Majestät Gnädigsten Befehl von der zu… besonders verordneten Kommission] (Stockholm, 1774-1780).

Nya Testamentet. Öfwersättning af Bibelkommissionen (Stockholm, 1873).

Nya Testamentet. Ny öfversättning med förklarande anmärkningar af [Neu« Übersetzung mit erklärenden Anmerkungen von] P. Waldenström (Stockholm, 1883-1894).

Bibeln eller Den Heliga Skrift. Gamla och Nya testamentet. De kanoniska bökkerna. Översättningen gillad och stadfäst av Konungen år 1917 [Die vom König im Jahr 1917 anerkannte und bestätigte Übersetzung] (Stockholm: Norstedt förlag, 1917).

Nya Testamentet på vår tids språk. De fyra evangelierna. Ny översättning med förklarande noter [Das neue Testament in der Sprache unserer Zeit. Die Evangelien. Neue Übersetzung mit erklärenden Noten; von D. Hedegård] (Stockholm: Evangeliska Fosterlandsstiftelsens Bokförlag, 1964).

Nya Testamentet på vår tids språk 2 [das übrige NT; von D. Hedegård] (Stockholm: Fosterlandsstifelsen, 1965).

Fem bibelböcker [Fünf Bibelbücher]. Gamla testamentet 1: Nyöversättningar Neuübersetzungen] (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1979).

Bibeln. Nya testamentet. Bibelkommissionens utgåva [Die Ausgabe der Bibelkommission] (Statens offentliga utredningar 1981: 56; 6; Stockholm: Utbildningsdepartementet, 1981).

Nio bibelböcker [Neun Bibelbücher]. Gamla testamentet 2, översatta av bibelkommissionen [von der Bibelkom. übersetzt] (Örebro: Libris, 1984).

Turkish Bible translations – Türkische Bibeln –

Müjde 1988. İncil “Müjde” İncil`in Çağdaş Türkçe Çevirisi. İstanbul: Kitabı Mukaddes Şirketi Yayınları. [Dt.: Müjde. Neue Moderne Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments.].

Kitabı Mukaddes [1941] 1995. İstanbul: Kitabı Mukaddes Şirketi.

Kutsal Kitap 2001. İstanbul: The Bible Society in Turkey.

Kutsal Kitap Yeni Çeviri / En Büyük Boy Ciltli 2002. İstanbul: Kitapyurdu. [Dt.: Neue Übersetzung des Heiligen Buches / Großformat 2002.].

Ekümenik Kutsal Kitap 2007. Online: http://www.hakikat.net/index.php. [Stand 2013-01-05].

İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Dt.: Das Neue Testament in alter Bedeutung. Die Worte des Matthäus.].

İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Engl.: The New Testament in Old Meaning. The words of Matthew.]. [Matta].

Halk Dilinde İncil 2012. İstanbul: Yeni Yaşam Yay Yayınları. [Translated from: The New Testament Easy Reader. Texas : World Bible Translation.].

List of modern Turkish BT publications

1959 Gospels, Acts. Padua. Transl. by Jean Wendel, based on the Greek Merk text.

1989 New Testament [Repr 1990-1992).

1996 New Testament (revised). TBS, Istanbul. Translated into colloquial Turkish by a committee including Thomas Cosmades (Evangelical Alliance), Behnan Konutgan, Ali Şimşek (Translation Trust), Mahmut (=David) Solgun (Translation Trust). BK and MS were TBS, AS was TT. Thomas Cosmades’ NT was published by TBS.

1977 [1972] Mark (revised) BFBS, Istanbul. Transl. by Vedat Örs, assisted by a committee, including Jean Wendel, Riza Ünal, C. R. Avery, and Paul H. Nilson; based on the 1959 Wendel version.

1978 Mark BFBS, Istanbul. Transl. by V. Örs, assisted by Peter Hopkins, Mrs. Julian = Pamela Richardson, and a review committee.

1979 John. Istanbul. Transl. by a committee under the guidance of Denis Alexander and Ali Şimşek; based on the English Living version.

1987 New Testament [Repr +1989, +1994] Translation Trust, London.

2003. Bible, DC BS in Turkey, Istanbul. The New Turkish Translation prepared by a committee of the BS in Turkey (OT) and the Translation Trust (NT, DC). TBS holds the copyright for the DC. This translation aimed at a “middle of the road” style hopefully accessible to all kinds of Turks, but its avoidance of Arabic-based theological vocabulary made it less appealing to many more Islamised Turks.

2005 New Testament. 2008 +Bible. WTBTS. New York. Transl. by the WTBTS based on the English version.

2011 İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Engl.: The New Testament in Old Meaning. The words of Matthew.]. [Matta].

2012 Halk Dilinde İncil. HADİ. İstanbul: Yeni Yaşam Yayınları. [Translated from: The New Testament Easy Reader. Texas : World Bible Translation.].

Exegetical Tools (Commentaries) – Exegetische Hilfsmittel (Kommentare) –

Allen, David L. 2010. Hebrews. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

ANLEX GNTDICT – Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament. [1994] 2000 Timothy and Barbara Friberg. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Barrett, C. K. 1957. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. HNTC. New York: Harper & Row.

Bauer6 1988. Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur. Bauer, Walter, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage, im Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung/Münster unter besonderer Mitwirkung von Viktor Reichmann herausgegeben von Kurt Aland und Barbara Aland. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

BAG 1957. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F. & Gingrich, F.W. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412).

BAGD [1958] 1979. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412).

BDAG [2000] 2012. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (Deutsche Ausgabe: Walter Bauer’s Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur, 6th edition, Aland Kurt, Aland, Barbara & Reichmann, Viktor und frühere englische Ausgaben von Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. (Hgg.). BDAG3. Aufl. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:27, 412).

BDB Gesenius, Wilhelm [1833] 2015. Hebrew-Aramaic and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Complete and unabridged. By Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles Briggs. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Betz, Hans Dieter 1988. Der Galaterbrief. Ein Kommentar zum Brief des Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinden in Galatien. Hermeneia. Kaiser: München.

Betz, Hans Dieter 1988. Der Galaterbrief. Ein Kommentar zum Brief des Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinden in Galatien. Hermeneia. Kaiser: München. [Engl.: Betz, Hans Dieter [1979] 1984. Galatians. Reprint. Philadelphia: Fortress.].

BHT [2001] 2015. Hebrew Old Testament. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Bibelkommentar Neues Testament – Edition C. 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

Biblischer Commentar über das Alte Testament 1869-1889. Keil, Carl Friedrich & Delitzsch, Franz. 19 Bände. Enthält 4 Bände zu NT Matthäus (1877), Johannes (1881), Hebräer (1885), Briefe des Petrus und Judas (1883). Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke. [Engl.: Commentary on the Old Testament. Reprint from ed. 1866-1891. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Peabody: Hendricksons.].

Bock, Darrell L. 1996. Luke. NIV application Commentary (NIVAC). 42 Bände (20 davon NT). General Editor Terry Muck. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Boer, Martinus C, de 2011. Galatians: A Commentary. The New Testament Library. Louisville: John Knox.

Boring, M. Eugene 2006. Mark. NTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox.   p. 6–9;

Bovon, François [1989] 2012. Das Evangelium nach Lukas: EKK III/1-4. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Aufl. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos / Neukirchener Verlag.

Buchanan, George W. 1976. To the Hebrews. AB. 2nd ed. Garden City: Doubleday.  p. xix.

Bruce, Frederick Fyvie [1982] 2002. The Epistle to the Galatians: A commentary on the Greek text. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Byrne, Brendan 1996. Romans. SP 6. Collegeville: Liturgical Press.

Clarke, Howard 2003. The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Concordance to the Novum Testamentum Graece (KNTG) 1987. With Collaboration of Bachmann, H. & Slaby, W. A. Institute for New Testament Textual Research and the Computer Center of Münster University. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Concordantia Veteris Testamenti: Hebraicae arque Aramaicae (Konkordanz zum Hebräischen Alten Testament [1958] 1981. Lisowsky, Gerhard & Rost, Leonhard. Zweite Auflage. Nach dem Masoretischen Text. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Cranfield, C. E. B. [1975] 1979. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 2 vols. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Das grosse Bibellexikon 1987. Burkhardt, Helmut, Grünzweig, Fritz, Laubach, Fritz & Maier, Gerhard. Giessen: Brunnen Verlag. [Engl.: Bruce, Frederik F; Douglas, James D., Hillyer N. & Packer, James I. 1980. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity.].

DeSilva, David A. 2000. Perseverance in Gratitude: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on the Epistle “to the Hebrews”. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Dowd, Sharyn 2000. Reading Mark. RNT. Macon: Smyth & Helwys.   p. 2.

Dunn, James D. G. 1988. Romans 1–8, Romans 9–16. WBC 38A–B. Dallas: Word.

Dunn, James D. G. 2011. Epistle to the Galatians. Black’s New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Dunn, James D. G. 2013. The Theology of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. New Testament Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Evans, Craig A. 2001. Mark 8:27–16:20. WBC 34B. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Edition C 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Bibelkommentar Neues Testament. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

Egger, Wilhelm & Wick, Peter 2013. Methodenlehre zum Neuen Testament: Biblische Texte selbständig auslegen. Freiburg: Herder.

Einführungen und Erklärungen aus der Stuttgarter Erklärungsbibel. Neuausgabe mit Apokryphen. 2005. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Neuer sprachlicher Schlüssel zum NT. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Lexikon zur Bibel. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

EKK Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament (1982 – voraussichtlich 2018). Gnilka, Joachim, Klauck, Hans-Josef , Luz, Ulrich & Roloff, Jürgen (Hgg.). 25 Bände. Stuttgart: Patmos.

EKK III/1-4. Das Evangelium nach Lukas [1989] 2012. Bovon, François. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Auflage. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos /Neukirchener Verlag.

ExWBNT 1980. Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Balz, Horst & Schneider, Gehard. 3/1-3. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. [Engl.: EDNT. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.].

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1993. Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 33. New York: Doubleday.

FBD [Circa. 1888] 1998. Faussett Bible Dictionary. Electronic edition. International Bible Translators. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GIND [1965] 2015. Gingrich, Wilbur F. & Danker, William, Frederick. Shorter Lexicon of the Greek New Testament. 2nd ed. Ed. by F. Gingrich and Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GKzLB 1984. Grosse Konkordanz zur Lutherbibel. Berlin und Altenburg: Evangelische Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft.

Gnilka, Joachim 1986. Das Matthäusevangelium. HTKNT. Freiburg: Herder.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 4. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 27 Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt et al. (eds.). Stuttgart: United Bible Societies and German Bible Society. (GNT – The Greek New Testament (GNT), Ed. by Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, and Allen Wikgren, in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Münster/Westphalia, Fourth Edition (with exactly the same text as the Nestle-Aland 27th Edition of the Greek New Testament), Copyright © 1966, 1968, 1975 by the United Bible Societies (UBS) and 1993, 1994 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), Stuttgart.)

GNT [2004] 2015. Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 28. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Grässer, Erich 1990. An die Hebräer. EKK. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener.  p. 1:15.

Gray, George B. 1912. A critical and exegetical commentary on the book of Isaiah, I–XXXIX. International Critical Commentary (ICC). New York: C. Scribner’s Sons.

Green, Joel 1997. The Gospel of Luke. NICNT. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Green, Joel B. & Turner, Max (eds.) 2000. Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies & Systematic Theology. Einleitungsband zu Two Horizons New Testament Commentary (THNTC) 1994-2012. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 1973. Frisk, Hjalmar. 2 Bände (Bd. 1 A-Ko; Bd. 2 Kρ-Ω). Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.

Hagner, Donald A. 1998. Matthew 1-13. Word Biblical Commentary 33A (WBC). Dallas: Word.

HALOT [2000] 2015. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Koehler, Ludwig & Baumgartner, Walter (eds.). KBL. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Harris, Murray J. 2005. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

HNT 1969-2008. Handbuch zum Neuen Testament. 20 Bände. Lindemann, Andreas. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

HNT 1877. Ha-Berit ha-Ḥadashah. Hebrew New Testament. Salkinson, Isaac Edward & Ginsburg, Edward. British Missionary Society.

HNTC 1998-2000. Holman New Testament Commentary. Anders, Max (ed.). 12 Bände. 11 Autoren. Tennessee: Broadman & Holman.

ICC 1895-2010. International Critical Commentary. Emerton, John Adney, Cranfield, Charles E. B., Stanton, Graham Norman (eds.). London: T& T Clark.

ISBE [1914] 1939. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Revision. Orr, James, Nuelsen, John, Mullins, Edgar, Evans, Morris & Kyle, Melvin Grove (eds.). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. Online: URL: http://www.internationalstandardbible.com [Stand 2014-09-20].

Jewett, Robert 2007. Romans. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress.

JFB 1997. Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible. Jamieson, R., Fausset, A. R., & Brown, D. Oak Harbor. [entstanden Ende 19. Jahrhundert].

Kassühlke, Rudolf [1997] 2015. Kleines Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament: Griechisch-Deutsch. Vierte Auflage. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [als Anhang beigefügt am Novum Testamentum Graece. 28. Auflage. Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.].

Keck, Leander E. 2005. Romans. ANTC. Nashville: Abingdon. [Abingdon New Testament Commentary].

Keener, Craig S. 2009. The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Keener, Craig S. 2009. Romans: A New Covenant Commentary. Eugene: Cascade.

KEK 1832-. Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Begr. von Heinrich August Meyer. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

HNT 1877. Ha-Berit ha-Ḥadashah. Hebrew New Testament. Salkinson, Isaac Edward & Ginsburg, Edward. British Missionary Society.

Klein, Hans 2006. Das Lukasevangelium. (Meyers) Kritischer-exegetischer Kommentar zum NT (10. Aufl. seit 1832). 1. Aufl. Bd I/3. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch [1926-1961] 1986. Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. 9. Unveränderte Auflage. München: C. H. Beck. [Engl.: Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash. 2013. 3 Vols. Bellingham: Lexham Press.].

LEH [1992, 2003] 2012. Lust, Johan, Eynikel, Erik & Hauspie, Kathrin. A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint. Revised Ed. Orig. 2 Bde A-I (Bd. 1), K-O (Bd. 2). Einbändige Version bei Peabody: Hendrickson. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als GELXX. [DVD].

Lenski, R. C. H. 1936. The Interpretation of St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans. Minneapolis: Augsburg.

Lexikon zur Bibel 2013. Rienecker, Fritz, Maier, Gerhard, Wendel, Ulrich & Schick, Alexander. Wuppertal: SCM Brockhaus.

Lightfoot, J. B. 1881. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippians. 6th ed. London: Macmillan;

Lightfoot, J. B. 1890. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 10th ed. London: Macmillan.

Lightfoot, J. B. 1897. Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. London: Macmillan.

L&N [1988] 2012. Louw, J. P. & Nida, Eugene A. Louw-Nida Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. 2nd ed. New York: United Bible Societies (UBS). Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 as LNLEX. [DVD].

LSJ [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. The Abridged Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als LSDICT. [DVD].

LSJ (supplement) [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. Septuagint Lexicon Supplement to the Greek. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als LSDICT (supplement). [DVD].

LSJM [1996] 2015. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th Revised Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Marcus, Joel B. 2000. Mark 1–8. AB. New York: Doubleday.  1:64–69.

Marshall, Howard I. 1978. The Gospel of Luke: A commentary on the Greek text. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). Paternoster Press: Exeter.

Martin, R. P. 1998. 2 Corinthians. Word Biblical Commentary Vol. 40. Dallas: Word.

Matera, Frank J. 2010. Romans. Paideia Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker.

McKnight, Scot 1995. Galatians. NIV application Commentary (NIVAC). 42 Bände (20 davon NT). General Editor Terry Muck. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Meiser, Martin 2007. Galater. Novum Testamentum Patristicum Band 9 (NTP). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Moo, Douglas J. 1996. The Epistle to the Romans. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Mußner, Franz [1974] 2002. Der Galaterbrief. 5. Aufl. HThKNT – Ungekürzte Sonderausgabe. Herder: Freiburg. (katholische Kommentar: Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament).

NAC 1991-2012. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

NET 2005. New English Translation. Online: URL: http://netbible.com/content/download [accessed 2014-07-28].

Newman, Barclay M. 1971. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. London: United Bible Societies. [included in Aland et al. 1983. The Greek New Testament3. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies.].

Newman, Barclay M. jr. [1971] 1993. A Concise Greek-English Dicitionary of the New Testament. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies / Deutsche Bibel Gesellschaft.

NIDNT [1975] 1986. New International Dictionary of the New Testament. Brown, Colin. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. [Original 1978 Exeter: Paternoster Press].

NIGTC 1978-2005. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). 13. Vols. Grand Rapids:Eerdmans.

Novum Testamentum Graece: Mit Wörterbuch 2012. Nestle-Aland. 28. Auflage. Herausgegeben vom Institut für Neutesatmentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

NTD [2001] 2005. Stuhlmacher, Peter & Weder, Heinz. Das Neue Testament Deutsch. Wuppertal: Brockhaus, Vandenhoech & Ruprecht. Eingebunden in ElbiWin. [CD-ROM].

O’Brien, Peter T. 2010. The Letter to the Hebrews. PNTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Oepke, Albrecht 1964. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 2. Verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung Rohde, Joachim 1984. 5. Aufl.

Passow, Franz [1823] 1993. Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 4 Bände. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

PNTC 1988-2012. The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Carson, Donald A. 15 Bände. 12 Autoren. Leicester: Apollos.

PONS 2006. Kompaktwörterbuch Althebräisch (Althebräisch-Deutsch). Stuttgart: Ernst Klett.

Rohde, Joachim 1984. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 5. Aufl 2. Überarbeitete und verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung von Oepke, Albrecht 1964.

Sanday, William & Headlam, Arthur C. 1902. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 5th ed. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Schreiner, Thomas R. 1998. Romans. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker.

SKK-NT 2006. Stuttgarter Kleiner Kommentar: Neues Testament. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk. Eingebunden in MFchi. [CD-ROM].

Smith, Gary V. 2007. Isaiah 1–39. (E. R. Clendenen, Ed.). The New American Commentary (NAC). Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

Stein, Robert H. 1992. Vol. 24: Luke. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers.

Stein, Robert H. 2008. Mark. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker.

Str-B [1926-1961] 1986. Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch. 9. Unveränderte Auflage. München: C. H. Beck. [Engl.: Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash. 2013. 3 Vols. Bellingham: Lexham Press.].

TDNT [1985] 2015. Kittel, Gerhard, Friedrich, Gerhard & Bromley, Geoffrey W. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Abridged). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

TBLNT [1971] 1986. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar, Beyreuther, Erich & Bietenhard, Hans. 2. Bände. 4. Aufl. Studienausgabe/7. Aufl. Gesamt­ausgabe. Wup­per­tal: Brockhaus. [neu 2014: Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.].

TBLNT 2014. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.

The Greek Testament Critical Exegetical Commentary [1863] 1878. Alford, Henry. 4 Vols. Combined 5th ed. London: Rivington.

The Pulpit Commentary 1909-1919. Spence, H. D. M & Exell, S. 77 Bände. Logos 4 Biblesoftware.

ThHK 1928-1964. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament. Erste Reihe. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

THKNT (ThHKNT) 1988-2012. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, Bd. 3-17. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

Grundmann, Walter 1989. Das Evangelium nach Markus. ThHKNT Bd. 2. 10. Aufl. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

Oepke, Albrecht 1964. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 2. Verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung Rohde, Joachim 1984. 5. Aufl.

Rohde, Joachim 1984. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 5. Aufl 2. Überarbeitete und verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung von Oepke, Albrecht 1964.

Wiefel, Wolfgang 1989. Das Evangelium nach Lukas. ThHKNT Bd. 3. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

THAT 1984. Jenni, Ernst (Hg.). Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2. Bd. 3. durch­ge­se­hene Aufl. unter Mitarbeit von Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser.

Thiselton, Anthony C. 2000. The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.  p. xvi.

ThWAT [1970] 1973. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Botterweck & Ringgren. Bd. 1-10. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

ThWNT / TWNT [1933] 1978. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Kittel, Gerhard. Bd. 1-10/2. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

THNTC 1994-2012. Einleitungsband: Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies & Systematic Theology. Green, Joel B. & Turner, Max (eds.) 2000. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

TWOT [1971; 1980] 2015. Harris, Laird R., Archer, Gleason L. jr., Waltke, Bruce K. The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Press of Chicago. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

VGNT [1914] 1997 2015. Moulton, James H. & Milligan, George. The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament illustrated from the Papyri and other non-literary sources. Including Scripture Index from Wallace, Daniel. Peabody: Hendrickson. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Vouga, François 1998. An die Galater. HNT (Handbuch zum Neuen Testament) 10. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Vulgate 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: German Bible Society. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Vulgata [1969] 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Lateinische Vulgata). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (VUL – Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, Vulgate Latin Bible (VUL), Ed. by R. Weber, B. Fischer, J. Gribomont, H.F.D. Sparks, and W. Thiele [at Beuron and Tuebingen] (German Bible Society).

Watts, John D. W. 2005a. Vol. 24: Isaiah 1–33 (Revised Edition). WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Watts, John D. W. 2005b. Vol. 25: Isaiah 34–66 (Revised Edition). WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Witherington,Ben III 2004. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Wolter, Michael 2008. Das Lukasevangelium. Handbuch Zum Neuen Testament (HNT) 5. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament: Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Deutsch und Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Englisch; A Hebrew/Aramaic-English and Hebrew/Aramaic-German Lexicon of the Old Testament. Bosman, H. J., Oosting, R., & Potsma, F. 2009; 2009. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

UBSDICT [1971] 2015. Newman, Barclay M. Jr. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Work of Eugene A. Nida (partially in cooperation)- Eugene A. Nidas Werke (teilweise in Kooperation mit anderen) –

Anmerkung: Aus Gründen der Anschaulichkeit von Nidas bibliographischem Wirken folgt diese Auflistung der Erstauflage von Werken.

Nida, Eugene A. 1937. The Tarahumara language. Investigaciones Lingüísticas 4, 140-44.

Nida, Eugene A. 1943. Linguistic interludes. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1945. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation Problems. Word 1, 194-208.

Nida, Eugene A. 1946. Syntax: A Descriptive Analysis. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947a. A Translators Commentary on Selected Passages. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947b. Field techniques in descriptive linguistics. International Journal of American Linguistics 13, 138-46.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947c. Linguistic Interludes. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. [1947] 1961. Bible Translating: An Analysis of Principles and Proce­du­res, with Special Reference to Aboriginal Languages. Rev. ed. London: United Bible Societies. (ursprünglich New York: American Bible Society).

Nida, Eugene A. 1948a. The Analysis of Grammatical Constituents. Language 24, 168-77.

Nida, Eugene A. 1948b. The identification of morphemes. Language 24, 414-41.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949a. Approaching reading through the native language. Language Learning 2, 16-20.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949b. Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words. 2n ed. Ann Arbor: Uni­versity of Michigan.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951a. A system for the description of semantic elements. Word 7/1, 1-14.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951b. Outline of Descriptive Syntax. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952a. God’s Word in Man’s Language. New York: Harper and Brothers.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952b. A New Methodology in Biblical Exegesis. BT 3/3, 97-111.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952-53. Selective listening. Language Learning 4, 92-101.

Nida, Eugene A. [1954] 1975. Customs and Cultures: Anthropology for Christian Missions. Re­print. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1957. Learning a foreign language: A Handbook Prepared especially for Mis­sionaries. Ann Arbor: Friendship Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958a. Analysis of Meaning and Dictionary Making. International Jour­nal of American Linguistics, Franz Boas Centennial Vol. 24/4, 279-292.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958b. The Relationship of Social Structure to the Problems of Evangelism in Latin America. Practical Anthropology 5/3, 101-123.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959a. Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating, in Brower, Reuben A. (ed.): On Translation, 11-31. Cambridge: Harvard Uni­versity Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959b. Introducing Animism. New York: Friendship.

Nida, Eugene A. [1960] 1990. Message and Mission: The Communication of the Chris­tian Faith. Rev. Ausgabe mit Vorwort von Charles Kraft. Pasa­dena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960a. BT’s Use of Receptor-Language Texts. BT 11/2, 82-86.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960b. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Linguistic Series 4. Norman: Sum­mer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961a. The Indigenous Churches of Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 97-105, 110.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961b. Communication of the Gospel to Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 145-156.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964a. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Prin­cip­les and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964b. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation-Problems, in Hymes, Dell (ed.): Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology, 90-97. New York: Harper & Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Norman: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1965. Dynamics of Church Growth, in McGavran, Donald A. (Hg.): Church Growth and Christian Mission. New York: Harper and Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967a. Comment Traduire La Bible. Biel: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967b. Morphology. The descriptive analysis of words. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Nida, Eugene A. [1968] 1981. Das Wesen des Übersetzens, in Wilss, Wolfram (Hg.): Über­setz­ungswissenschaft (WdF 535), 123-149. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buch­ge­sell­schaft. (Englisches Original: Nida, Eugene A. 1975. Science of Translation, in Dil, Answar (ed.): Language Structure and Translation. Essays by Eugene A. Nida, 79-101. Stanford). (Artikel ist ein Vortrag von 1968).

Nida, Eugene A. 1968. Religion Across Cultures. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1968. Gott spricht viele Sprachen. 2. Aufl. Stuttgart: Evangelischer Mis­sions­ver­lag. (dt. Übersetzung von God’s Word in Man’s Language 1952).

Nida, Eugene A. 1969a. Die Pfingstkirchen in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (Hg.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 90-96. Berlin: Lettner.

Nida, Eugene A. 1969b. Afrikanische Einflüsse auf das religiöse Leben in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (Hg.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 39-44. Berlin: Lettner.

Nida, Eugene A. 1969c. Communication of the Gospel in Latin America. Guernavaca: CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentacion).

Nida, Eugene A. 1970. Formal Correspondence in Translation. BT 21, 105-13.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972a. Book of a Thousand Tongues. Revised ed. New York: United Bible So­cieties.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972b. Implications of Contemporary Linguistics for Biblical Scholarship. JoBL 91/1, 73-89. Und Online: URL: http://links.jstor.­org/sici?sici­=00­2­1-­9231%28197203%2991%3A1%3C73%3A­IOCL­FB­%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5. [PDF-Dokument] [Stand 2008-03-04].

Nida, Eugene A. 1972c. Communication and Translation. BT 23/3, 309-16.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972d. Varieties of Language. BT 23/3, 316-322.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972e. Linguistic Theories and Bible Translating. BT 23/3, 301-308.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972f. New Religions for Old: A Study of Culture Change. Practical Anthropolgy 19/1, 13-26.

Nida, Eugene A. 1973. Sprache und Kommunikation, in Nelson, John Robert & Pannen­berg, Wolfhart (Hg.): Um Einheit und Heil der Menschheit, 181 – 200. Frankfurt: Lembeck.

Nida, Eugene A. 1974a. Translation, in Sebeok, Thomas A. (ed.): Current Trends in Linguis­tic 12, 1045-66. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1974b. Translator’s Notes on Literacy Selections. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975a. Exploring Semantic Structures. München: Wilhelm Fink.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975b. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. [1975] 1979. Componential Analysis of Meaning: An Introduction to Se­man­tic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976a. Scientific Insights to be Gained from Bible Translating. Technical Papers for BT 27/1, 142-144. London: United Bible Socities.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976b. Translation as Communication, in Nickel, Gerhard (Hg.): Pro­ceed­ings of the Fourth International Congress of Applied Linguistics, Bd. 2, 61-82. Stuttgart.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976c. A Framework of the Analysis and Evaluation of Theories of Trans­lation, in Brislin, Richard W. (ed.): Translation: Applications and Research, 47-92. New York: Gardner Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977a. Good News for Everyone: How to Use the Good News Bible (Today’s English Version). Waco: Word Books.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977b. Translating means Communicating: A Sociolinguistic Theory of Translation. Linguistics and Anthropology. Proceedings (= Georgetown Univ. round table on languages and linguistics 28), 213-229. Washington.

Nida, Eugene A. 1978. Einige Grundsätze heutiger Bibelübersetzung, in Meurer, Siegfried (Hg.)­: Eine Bibel – viele Übersetzungen: Not oder Notwendigkeit? 11-18. Stutt­gart: Ev. Bibelwerk.

Nida, Eugene A. 1980a. The Selection of a Translation Team. BT 31, 434-437.

Nida, Eugene A. 1980b. Problems of Biblical Exegesis in the Third World, in Aland, Kurt & Brecht, Martin (Hg.): Text, Wort, Glaube, 159 – 165. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981a. Bible Translation for the Eighties. International Review of Mission 70/279, 130-139. Edinburgh.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981b. Translators Are Born Not Made. BT 32, 401-405.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981c. Das Wesen des Übersetzens, in Wilss, Wolfram (Hg.): Übersetzungs­wissen­schaft (WdF 535), 123-149. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

Nida, Eugene A. 1982a. Translating Meaning. San Dimas: English Language Institute.

Nida, Eugene A. 1982b. Quality in Translation. BT 33/3, 329-332.

Nida, Eugene A. 1983. Style in Bible Translating, in Meurer, Siegfried (Hg.): Mittelpunkt Bibel. Ulrich Flick zum 60. Geburtstag, 70 – 78. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft.

Nida, Eugene A. 1984. Signs, Sense, and Translation. Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. 1985. Translating Means Translating Meaning. A Sociosemiotic Approach to Translating, in Braunmüller, Wilhelm (Hg.): Der Übersetzer und seine Stel­l­ung in der Öffentlichkeit. X. Weltkongreß der FIT 19, 119-125. Wien.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991a. Trends in Bible Translating within the United Bible Societies: An Histor­ical Perspective. BT 42, 2-5.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991b. Textual Criticism and Entropy, in Norton, Gerard J. & Pisano, Stephen (Hgg.): Tradition of the Text: Studies Offered to Dominique Barthélemy in Celebration of His 70th Birthday. Orbus Biblicus et Orientalis 109, 124-128. Freiburg (Schweiz): Universitätsverlag.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991c. The Paradoxes of Translation. BT 42, 5-27.

Nida, Eugene A. 1992. Theories of Translation, in Freedman, D. N. et al. (eds.): The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday.

Nida, Eugene A. 1995. Names and Titles. Manuscript. [unpublished].

Nida, Eugene A. 1996. The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Bruxelles: Editions du Hazard.

Nida, Eugene A. 1999. Multimedia Communication of the Biblical Message, in Soukup, Paul A. & Hodgsor, Robert (eds.): Fidelity and Translation. New York: American Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. 2000. Creativity in Translating, in Omanson, Roger L. (ed.): I must speak to you plainly: In Honor of Robert G. Bratcher, 155-166. Carlisle: Paternoster.

Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Contexts in Translating. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2003. Fascinated by Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004a. Similar but Different, in Arduini, Stefano & Hodgson, Robert (eds.): Similarity and Difference in Translation Proceedings of the International Con­ference on Similarity and Translation. New York, May 31 -June 1 2001. Rimini: Guaraldi.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004b. Traducerea sensurilor – traducerea: posibil i imposibil. Iai: Institute European.

In Kooperation mit anderen Verfassern – In Cooperation with other Authors

Jin, Di & Nida, Eugene A. 1984. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1979. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1980. A Translators Handbook on the First Letter from Peter. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1961. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of Mark. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Colos­sians and to Philemon. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1982. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s letter to the Ephesians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1975. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Thes­sa­lonians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1983. A Translators Handbook on the Letter to the Hebrews. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Loh, I-Jin 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Philip­pians. New York: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Louw, Johannes P. 1988. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. New York: Amercian Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. & Romero, Moisés C. 1950. The pronominal series in Maya (Yucatec). International Journal of American Linguistics 16, 193-97.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1972. A Translators Handbook on the Acts of the Apostles. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1973. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1980. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of John. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Price, Brynmor F. 1978. A Translators Handbook on the Book of Jonah. New York: United Bible Societies.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William D. 1974. Understanding Latin Americans. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William 1981. Meaning across Cultures: A Study on Bible Trans­lating. Maryknoll: Orbis.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens unter be­so­nd­er­­er Berücksichtigung der Bibelübersetzung. New York: Weltbund der Bibel­ge­sell­schaften. (Deutsche Übersetzung von Kassühlke, Rudolf & Loewen, Jacob A.).

Nida, Eugene A. & u. a. 1983. Style and Discourse: With Special Reference to the Text of the Greek New Testament. Cape Town: Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. & Waard, Jan de 1973. A Translator’s Handbook on the Book of Ruth. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Wonderly, William 1963. Cultural Differences and the Communication of Christian values. Practical Anthropology 10/6, 241-58.

Shedd, L. M. & Nida, Eugene A. 1952. A Pedagogical Grammar of the Quechua Tongue. Cochabamba: Bolivian Indian Mission.

The essence of Bible Translation – A preliminary ethical and practical Reflection –

/in

Eberhard Werner

Content

The essence of Bible Translation.. 1

– A preliminary ethical and practical Reflection -. 1

Content. 1

Abstract. 1

Foreword. 2

Preliminary Considerations on the Essence of Bible Translation.. 4

Missiological considerations. 5

Skopos and Objective of the Bible Translation. 7

Addressees, audience, target group. 8

Theological narrowing – Missiological breadth.. 9

Ethical (philosophical) reflections on Bible translation.. 11

Inspiration and Bible Translation. 14

Function of Bible translation. 15

Subsequent function of Bible translation. 17

Leading function of the Bible translation. 19

Incarnatory Principle of Bible Translation. 22

Inspiration – Sacred Texts. 25

Homiletics and Evangelism.. 28

Summary – An Ethical Reflection on Bible Translation. 30

 

Abstract

By international organizations, as well as local church-initiatives “Bible translation” becomes a global movement, yet represents a glocal movement as a merge of both. Associated with this are the upgrading of the mother tongue, the inte.g.ration of even the smallest ethnic groups in the political-economic discourse of the nation-states, the networking of translational, ethnological and linguistic scientific activity and knowledge under the roof of the missiological and theological directed science of Bible translation. Due to this development, the question arises, among other things, of a binding ethic that traces the essence of Bible translation as science. The translation of the Bible as science with its product of biblical texts has a dual function. By guidance through the sacral-liturgical text of the global and local church, it serves both for internal strengthening (sacral-theological function) and for the expansion of the church into the non-Christian area (evangelistic-missiological function). The “Bible translation” as a global movement has a trailing and a leading effect, both of which make it a supporting element of church development aid. In its trailing function, the Church contextualizes the biblical text and develops its own biblical tradition (internal contextualization). In its leading role, Bible translation is contextualized into linguistic-cultural environments in order to generate church structures (external contextualization). In these functions, the Bible translation acts twice, on the one hand preserving (protecting function) and on the other progressive (shaping function). Fundamental to the translation of the Bible as a product, process and function is the dynamic and continuous “incarnation principle”. This is based on the messianic-Christian content about Jesus of Nazareth in a) oral and listening (oral-aural) and b) written (literary) form. It is essentially based on the sending of the Judeo-Christian God. The question arises, whether this principle of “incarnation”, conveyed in the Bible translation, represents a dynamic-continuous (recurring) or unique and thus static-preserving event, or whether both. The first does justice to the revelation of the divine history of salvation, which is translated by revisions of existing mother tongue Bible translations or first Bible translations into new mother tongues, the second calls for the constant reference of its revelation into the Jewish-ancient world around the turn of the times. This also involves the use of literal-philological translation traditions (preserving function) and communicative-idiomatic principles of translation (shaping function). Therefore, the current basic principles and the resulting developments in this scientific discipline are discussed below. This study represents preparatory philosophical-ethical considerations for a future ethics of Bible translation, which is based on the history of Bible translation in the context of world and church history.

 

Foreword

Ethical questions arise whenever a discipline has a lively discussion about its objectives and conditions of its framework. This is obvious in the science of Bible translation in recent years. By and then the scientific circle of a discipline brings up the same topic with slightly different nuances, what Kuhn calls “scientific revolutions” (Kuhn 1970).1It is the Holy Spirit who is behind a translation of the Bible and lets the communication in the receiving person come into effect. However, it is precisely the communicative level among believers that is decisive for the receptivity of divine speech. This is the case in the science of Bible translation which is of interest here. Current discussions about contextualized Bible translations have given the impression that previous approaches to Christian development aid have been or are unprofessional and improper. This has led to considerable disturbances, both in the global Christian community and in local Christian institutions such as churches, congregations, and clerical organizations. It is in the nature of humans, when new paths are approached, they are wrestled and fought over. Objectivity and sustainability will guide the fate of new developments and bring about additions, changes or even realignments in the long term.

It is undisputed in the science of Bible translation that any linguistic group should have direct access to the basic biblical text. However, there is controversy about the communicative degree of a Bible translation and whether it should have a preserving or shaping effect or both. [1] The aim is a possibility to get to a linguistic-cultural equivalent in its own context that is able to grasp the native language audience. This is not easy for native-speaking translators either, because “translating” is an intuitive undertaking. In addition to a very literal translation that neglects the grammatical structures of the target language, it therefore makes sense to provide a communicative-contextualized option. The first will enter a “familiar” or “understood foreignness” in the text. Such a philological-literal translation imposes additional rework on the text for the reader. The second variant of communicative-idiomatic translation contains predefined interpretations by the translator and requires literal-philological references to the base text. The reader / listener will receive an extensive work. Whether this should be done in the translation as such, or in the paratext (accompanying text)2The term “paratext” for the explanations, notes and comments accompanying a “text” was coined by the French literary critic Gérard Genette (1981, 1997). Genette, Gérard 1981. Psalimpsestes: la litérature au second de.g.re. Paris: Editions du Seuil. Genette, Gérard 1997. Paratexts. Thresholds of interpretation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. is up to the individual to decide. Another option would be several Bible translations as in Western tradition (see footnote 32).

However, the work on the translation of the Bible, as a sacred holy text, rests on the unification and union of the present and future church of God in one language group. This does not mean that all members of a language group have to agree to the linguistic form, but it means that the greatest possible consensus must be found within a linguistic community. In the struggle for mother-tongue Bible translations – there will probably never be the one and only true Bible translation – as many social groups as possible should therefore be brought together. At the same time, the question arises whether the global church would ever develop unity through the “unifying sacred Bible text”. The past shows that different denominations and denominations draw from the same Bible text and even develop from it. This is for instance obvious in Germany based on the Luther translation which is directive for the Pentecostal Church, the Pietism followers, the Protestant Church as well as the Roman Catholic Church. At the same time, Bible translations have also divided groups, as shown for instance by the New World Translation of Jehovah’s Witnesses or the literal-concordant DaBaR translation. If you look at the whole, it does not seem possible to gather a larger language group around a single Bible text, let alone the global church. The interpretation of different scriptural traditions (canons) as well as individual parts of the Bible or biblical passages is far too different.

Another point is about historical developments in Christian and church development aid. The familiarity of church history to the history of Bible translation is remarkable. Church and parish movements have either created new Bible translations or revisions, or have emerged from them.3First translations form completely new approaches (e.g. first listening bible, first Jesus film) in a language group. These are also known as “missiological” Bible translations. Revision Bibles and new Bible translations, on the other hand, are all Bible translations that are made for a linguistic and cultural area that already has access to one or more full Bibles. This includes both the revision of an existing text and the production of a text as a new Bible translation, which establishes its own translation tradition. The only decisive factor is whether or not the team of Bible translators can use a mother tongue text as a reference object. Here too, a trailing and a leading factor can be identified. This includes the “glocal” attention to the “church” context (theological component) as well as to the secular area (missiological component) in which Bible translation takes place. Subsequently, Bible translation strengthens a local ecclesiastical corpus; in advance, it motivates Christian groups to deal with the biblical message linguistically and culturally by contextualizing it accordingly.

Preliminary Considerations on the Essence of Bible Translation

The science of Bible translation operates under a variety of premises.4The term “science of Bible translation” has recently been perceived in the Christian world as an independent discipline. The complexity of the subject of “Bible translation” has caught up with interdisciplinary Bible studies, so to speak, and has led to chairs that deal solely with Bible translation as a scientific discipline. However, there is still little such specification in German-speaking countries (s. Werner 2012:7-12). Werner, Eberhard 2012. Einleitung, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Bibelübersetzung als Wissenschaft – Aktuelle Fragestellungen und Perspektiven: Beiträge zum „Forum Bibelübersetzung“ aus den Jahren 2005 – 2011, 7-28. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. During Bible translation discussions it becomes clear that there are very different starting points and objectives. Those are based on:

the translation goal that is the range of translation from “(word) literal / interlinearized” to “communicative”; oral5These include oral traditions (English oral-aural), which can develop into their own written traditions in the course of their application. The interaction between narrator and audience is determined by cognitive-epistemological factors. In oral traditions, the narrator and the listener (female in English literature) determine not only the narrative textual discourse, but also the epistemological recording of what is told. Both components work together to make an oral tradition viable (oral-aural; oral-auditory). In other words, telling and listening go hand in hand. They are directed by hearing and speaking and influence thinking and understanding. or written product,
using the theoretical models of translation, those include verbal models, frame models, the functional model, the Skopos model, relevance theory, the mass communication model, the cultural and the dynamic equivalent model the translation focus. Does the translation follow domestication or alienation that is the controversy of indigenization versus foreignization? Another focus is about a product based, is it a third party on oriented translation, is it using “understood / familiar foreignness” as a translation principle,
the degree of contextualization e.g. gender issue or interreligious dialogue and
the planned distribution network for instance non-Christian circles, electronic media.
The term “Bible translation” contains three processes as used in literature. It includes the function, the process and the product. “Bible translation” as a scientific function describes its influence and meaning from a missiological-theological point of view in the context of church history and world history. This reflects the missiological significance as well as the translational and human scientific preoccupation with theological content. “Bible translation” as a process describes the interdisciplinary applied part of this discipline. This includes the individual steps that were historically necessary to pass on the word of God in an oral-audible (English-oral-aural) and written manner. This includes the missiological relevant developments in the history of the churches and Christian development aid. Bible Translation as a product describes the developments around the oral traditions of 6Werner, Eberhard 2013. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: SIL International. [unveröffentlicht]. and written biblical content in translation. Text criticism, epistemological-hermeneutical aspects and traditions play a role here.

The range of translations is reflected from maximum intelligibility in the target language7Sometimes called “transmission”, “paraphrase”, “communicative”, “free”, or “analog translation” (very rare, but also found “allegory”). The use of the term “transfer” is ambiguous, since a “transfer”, in the original sense of the word, represents a literal representation of a text in a target language, but colloquially it describes the exact opposite of a very “free” translation. to the absolute grammatical-literal structure of the original into the target language. The latter leads to a text that is difficult to understand, the first to a formal – not functional – alienation from the original. Or, as Schleiermacher put it, a decision must be made as to whether the text should be transported to the recipient or whether the recipient should be brought to the text (quoted in Stöhrig 1963: 221).8Schleiermacher, Friedrich [1813] 1963. Ueber die verschiedenen Methoden des Uebersetzens, in Störig, Hans Joachim (ed.): Das Problem des Übersetzens, 38-70. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. This is generally addressed at Venuti for translation and is carried out by Naudé for the area of Bible translation. Venuti considers the common range of translation between indigenization versus foreignisation, as a part of a translation decision (2010; 1998:305, 315).Venuti, Lawrence S. (ed.) [2000] 2010. The Translation Studies Reader. Reprint. London: Routledge. Venuti, Lawrence S. 1998. American Tradition, in Baker, Mona & Malmkjaer, K. (eds.): Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, 305-316. London & New York: Routledge. Naudé, Jacki A. 2002. An Overview of Recent Developments in Translation Studies with Special Reference to the Implications for Bible Translation, in Naudé, Jackie A. & Van der Merwe, Christo HJ (eds.): Contemporary Translation and Bible Translation. A South African Perspective, 44-69. In Acta Theologica Supplementum 2, Bloemfontein, South Africa: University of the Free State.

Depending on the objective, a “paratext” (accompanying text) in the form of comments, footnotes or cross-references is necessary. The concept of textual fidelity or loyalty (to the original) is improperly used in the Bible translation in favor of literal translations. The cause lies in the tried and tested philological-grammatical translation learned in school, which understands the transmission of an original only on the native language level. The cognitive-epistemological transfer of the text into the semiotic and semantic-grammatical levels is secondary (in detail Nord 2011: 117,119, 121-1229Nord, Christiane 2011. So treu wie möglich? Die linguistische Markierung kommunikativer Funktionen und ihre Bedeutung für die Übersetzung literarischer Texte, in Nord, Christiane (ed.): Funktionsgerechtigkeit und Loyalität: Die Übersetzung literarischer und religiöser Texte aus funktionaler Sicht. Arbeiten zur Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens und Dolmetschens. Band 33, 117-143. Berlin: Frank & Timme. (Original Aufsatz: erschienen in Keller, Rudi [Hrsg.] (1997): Linguistik und Literaturübersetzen. Tübingen: Narr, 35-59.).). Linguistic-cultural transmission takes place in the area of thought and understanding, which is reflected in the imagination of the audience. Among other things, the goal of the Bible translators is to help the two-dimensional oral or written “text” to give the audience a three-dimensional presentation. Oral traditions in the translation of the Bible represent one way to enable the liveliness of the text (e.g. Chronological Bible Storying, Bible narratives, The Prophets Story, radio), visual media representations another (drama, video, etc.).

Missiological considerations

Missiological developments in Christian development aid on non-alphabetized language groups led to the research and production of local Bible translations. The revision of translations as of the traditional Western Christian countries no longer solely or directly represent the scientific impetus for the necessary creativity and research in science for Bible translation. Not even in spite of a long history of Bible translation. Nevertheless, there is a mutual benefit of existing research and developments and experiences in Christian development aid. There is mutual give-and-take between Western organizations of Christian development aid and local partners, especially in the field of training native-language Bible translators. However, this should not hide the fact that there is still a strong dominance of the Western Church, which is understood – probably rightly – by local initiatives as “colonialist” and “imperialist” (Sánchez-Cetina 2007:392, 398, 408).10Sánchez-Cetina, Edesio 2007. Word of God, Word of the People: Translating the Bible in Post-Missionary Times, in Noss, Philip A. (ed.): A History of Bible Translation, 387-408. Roma: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.

The interaction of local initiatives on Bible translation led to a movement in Bible translation, which is also called the “Century of Bible Translation” (Sanneh 1989:211Sanneh, Lamin O. 1989. Translating the message: The missionary impact on culture. Maryknoll: Orbis. The “century of Bible translation” follows the 19th century, which Latourette calls the century of Christian development aid (1937: xv Introduction). Walls and Sanneh mark the 20th century as the real century of Christian expansion (Walls 2005: 64). It is therefore only natural that tensions will arise with other globally missionary religions. Latourette, Kenneth Scott 1937. A History of the Expansion of Christianity 1. New York and London: Harper. Walls, Andrew F. 2005. The cross-cultural Process in Christian History. 3rd ed. New York: Orbis.). The interdisciplinarity of the science of Bible translation with missiology, theology and some human sciences led to a global movement. Therefore one can speak of the “glocal” effect of Bible translation in Christian development aid. Global translational, missiological and theological impulses are set, which continues at the local level in the area of mother tongue activities. Not only that local churches are strengthened internally through Bible translations, no, the language and culture group as a whole is also perceived externally. Thereby develops its own identity, which is expressed in “oral traditions” (audio, video, artistic products) and “written products”. Above all, this includes the fixation of one’s own oral tradition (history, songs, stories, poetry, etc.). Native-language school systems (first reading classes, integrative language classes, etc.), reading and writing aids, author and reading groups and mostly political actors have developed. This development represents the framework for Christian development aid and Bible translation. Language and cultural research is deeply political. Contrary to a popular view in Christian development aid that religious activity is not political, the tensions in the two thousand year history show that political influence on interests consequently follows. This applies not only to the state churches (Roman Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox) but also to the free churches. The current statement of the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) with regard to the translation of the Bible is an inward-looking church activity (footnote 37). However, it is recognized not only by the churches worldwide, but also by the state. The discussion about religious freedom and thus human rights12Above all, the establishment of several religious institutes for the freedom of religion, which are placed alongside human rights organizations (e.g. Amnesty International). represents an outward-looking political activity. It would now be idle to examine past church activities as part of the expansion of the church, but there has always been a confrontation with state powers. In the context of church history, secular movements appear, which either counter Christian activity or acquire it as counter-forces (e.g. humanism). Bible translation is in the same way intertwined with imperialist-capitalist, i.e. political developments (e.g. Ingleby 201013Ingleby, Jonathan 2010. Beyond Empire: Postcolonialism & Mission in a Global Context. Central Milton Keynes: Author House.). This is also evident from the unproven allegation that American or European organizations dealing with global Bible translation are said to be close to secret services (e.g. Wiki entry on SIL International).14SIL International 2014. Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_International [Stand 2020-06-20].

Overall, the repeatedly denounced cultural-linguistic contextualization, based on linguistics and anthropology (in German-speaking countries also ethnology), has changed a lot (e.g. Morton 2012: 11)15Morton attributes a “humanistic” influence in theology and Bible translation to the effect of anthropology in the theological space. As a result, “human” evaluations came into research about God. Morton, Jeff 2012. Insider Movements: Biblically Incredible or Incredibly Brilliant? Eugene: Wipf & Stock.. At the same time, however, the authority of theology as the supreme discipline of Bible translation has been lost in favor of linguistics, anthropology, social sciences and psychology. This leads to an uneasiness on the theological side, which fears an overemphasis on human influence, or anthropocentrism, in Bible translation, which is otherwise regarded as a spiritual discipline. This is also closely related to a changed understanding of the incarnation and the divine process of inspiring sacred and sacred texts. Nowadays, human sciences, missiology and theology stand on the same level in order to serve the language, the culture, the social structure, as well as the religious-ideological feeling of a language group in the Bible translation.

Skopos and Objective of the Bible Translation

The pendulum between anthropocentric-humanistic influence and divine mode of action has been swinging to one side or the other since the beginning of the church. In the past, there was controversy about the degree to which a text may differ linguistically from a very literal translation (e.g. Cicero 106-43 BC 16Robinson, Douglas 1997. Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. S. 64.; Schleiermacher17Robinson, Douglas 1997. Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. S. 64.; Störig 1963: xxv preface18Störig, Hans Joachim (ed.) 1963. Das Problem des Übersetzens. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.). The “literal versus paraphrasing” discussion reached a new high with the discussion introduced by Nida (1964; TASOT), Taber and Nida (1969; TAPOT) and later by de Waard and Nida (1986; FOLIA) on dynamic equivalence. This model was later renamed by Nida together with de Waard to functional equivalence, but has so far held its own under the term dynamic equivalence 19Nida, Eugene A. 1964. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: EJ Brill. (TASOT). Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bibelübersetzung. New York: Weltbund der Bibelgesellschaften. (Deutsche Übersetzung von Kassühlke, Rudolf & Loewen, Jacob A.). (TAPOT). Waard, Jan de & Nida, Eugene A. 1986. From One Language to Another: Functional Equivalence in Bible Translation. Nashville: Nelson. (FOLIA).. This led to a crisis in Bible translation as a science in the Anglophone area in the 1980s, culminating in the “King James debate”. In Germany, it sparked the Christian public with the debate about so-called “modern” Bible translations that was initiated in 2003-2004 (Felber, Rothen & Wick20Felber, Stefan, Rothen, Bernhard & Wick, Peter 2003. „Heftige Kritik an modernen Bibelübersetzungen“. ethos 8, 56-57. Felber, Stefan 2004. Die Bibelübersetzung „Hoffnung für alle“ im kritischen Textvergleich. theologische beiträge 4/35, 181-201. Haan: Brockhaus. Felber recently published a critique of Nida and its dynamic equivalence, which examines the ideological infiltration of the model by the humanist and ideological generative transformation grammar. Felber, Stefan 2013. Kommunikative Bibelübersetzung – Eugene A. Nida und sein Modell der dynamischen Äquivalenz. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.). Fortunately, except for study purposes, the Church has only very rarely spoken in favor of an interlinearized or (word) literal format (e.g. DaBaR translation21Baader, Fritz Henning 1989. DaBhaR: DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Alten Bundes und DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Neuen Bundes. 2. Bde. Schömberg: Eigenverlag.; Munich New Testament22Münchner Neues Testament (MNT) [1988] 2007. Hainz, Josef. 8. Aufl. Düsseldorf: Patmos.). Other translation approaches are dealing with:

  • the cognitive processing of biblical information when communicating (relevance theory),
  • the functional structure of a translation process (functionalism),
  • the referential understanding framework (framework models; cultural model, mass communication model) or
  • the Skopos of translation (detailed in Werner 2011: 97- 192).
23Werner, Eberhard 2011. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität anhand der Ausbildungspraxis. Hamburg: Kovač [English Translation: Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Mandate for Bible Translation – Models of Communication and Translation in Theory and Practice in regard to the Science of Bible Translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: https://forschungsstiftung.net/sites/all/files/uploads/Bible%20Translati… [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2020-04-10]].

The dynamic equivalent, relevance theory, the cultural and some framework models have developed in the context of Bible translation within Christian development aid. Due to the large number of models and theories, the question of the translation method or the objective (Skopos) of a Bible translation is more relevant than ever.

These developments should not hide the fact that research is also carried out in the area of philological-literal translation methods. This is based on the realization that there can be more than just one literal translation of the Bible in a mother tongue. There is always an interpretative-intuitive part that leads to different translations. The purpose of philological research is currently aimed at attempts to translate the information given at word and sentence level into a target language in an understandable but closely dependent manner on the base text (Furuli 1999: xvi, 16, 3124Furuli, Rolf 1999. The Role of Theology and Bias in Bible Translation: With a Special Look at the New World Translation of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Elihu Books. (s. footnote 62).). In general, it can be stated that native-language initiatives of a first or missiological Bible translation as product endeavor to produce a literal translation of the Bible. Whether the same is now included as an independent first work, as accompanying text for a communicative translation of the Bible, or in the paratext (accompanying material) is differently realized.

Addressees, audience, target group

Another controversial question in Bible translation is still who is serving a Bible translation and for whom it is intended or may be contextualized. What is undisputed is the anthropocentric, i.e. human action – albeit with the request of divine assistance – in the theological exegesis of the base texts and the anthropological-linguistic understanding of the target language. Yet it remains a mind-splitting question whether Scripture

only through the church
mediates (sermon and exegesis) and
translated or
b) also with participation (church has leadership) or

c) can even be translated into a mother tongue under the direction of non-Christian initiatives (church accompanies the project from outside).

The underlying question is whether this text, sacred to Christians, does not belong solely because of its content about divine speech and encouragement25These include: verbatim speech by the Judeo-Christian God (e.g. “I tell you …”; God speaks …); the words of the prophet; the life story of God incarnate (e.g. the I am – statements). to the sacral realm of the Church. Consequently, she would be removed from the field of everyday profanity. In other words, the question arises whether Bible translations that were created for the liturgical-sacral area of the church should and may deviate significantly from so-called missiological “first or missiological translations”. Can the ideologically colored missiological or theological objective influence or even determine the meaning of a Bible translation, and to what extent?26This division is evident, for example, from the objectives of the United Bible Societies (UBS) and SIL International. While the United Bible Societies work with local churches, SIL International has focused on Christian and non-Christian speakers of mother tongues to provide a first work for an ethnic group. Such works are not preceded by church ties or prejudice, but by linguistic-anthropological considerations. Both organizations are now increasingly working in both areas and with other partner organizations (see Meurer 1978:174-175). Meurer, Sie.g.fried 1978. Die Übersetzungsstrate.g.ie des Weltbundes der Bibelgesellschaften, in Meurer, Siegfried (ed.): Eine Bibel – viele Übersetzungen: Not oder Notwendigkeit?, 173-189. Stuttgart: Ev. Bibelwerk. Theology, and regardless of this also missiology, would be challenged to free itself from the claim of solely handling the Bible. Both disciplines should open up themselves and the Bible to the access and knowledge of human-anthropocentric and non-Christian scientific output. Even if it appears that this change in Bible translation has already taken place, a profound resistance to non-church Bible translations point to another reality. In addition, the Western Church, which has a creative and dynamic independent missiological mindset, has developed detached from the common theological principles. Another factor of this question concerns the claim to holistically implement the divine word in the life of the individual and the collective of the Church. This process, called “growth in faith” (1Petr 2.2; 2Petr 3:18) brings an additional anthropocentric component into play. The implementation of recognized spiritual truths bridges the distance to the divine space. Only a theologically pre-colored teaching of the Kingdom of God enables epistemological access in this area. Such a theological vision is reflected in the science of Bible translation.

Theological narrowing – Missiological breadth

Missiology and theology are deliberately interlinked and mutually dependent. This is shown by the current discussion about transformative theology, which actually takes up a missiological (“missional”) approach, but is examined and criticized from a theological point of view. Worth mentioning here is the “Tübingen Pentecost Call” initiated by Peter Beyerhaus (2013).

27Beyerhaus, Peter PJ 2013. Weltevangelisierung oder Weltveränderung? Tübinger Pfingst-Aufruf zur Erneuerung eines biblisch-heilsgeschichtlichen Missionsverständnisses. Gomaringen/ Tübingen: Diakrisis. http://bekenntnisbruderschaft.de/fileadmin/Dokumente/¬Tuebinger-¬Pfingst-aufruf¬-2013-Langfassung.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2020-06-04]. Bosch also closely links missiology to theology, but already saw the fragmentation of theology into diverse local approaches in 1990 (1990: 3-4).

28Bosch, David J. 1991. Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission. Maryknoll: Orbis. The South American “liberation theological” origins and those based on African “black theology” are no longer recognizable in some missiological approaches. The African missiologist Mbiti, for example, complained about the absence and reluctance of the African churches to make theological decisions because they focused on Christian development aid (Mbiti 1969: 232).

29Mbiti, John 1969. African Religions and Philosophy. London. Heinemann.

The deficit of such an orientation is still unclear to date if Western (theological) influences were not asserted. The requirement of a theological justification for missiological approaches is often associated with theological pre-assessments (see the current discussion about “transformative theology”).

Creative and dynamic approaches to Bible translation that serve the target audience and are geared towards target groups (HUP30The model initiated by McGavran Homogenous Unity Principle is propagated here for target group-oriented Bible translation (McGavran 1968: 9-15; McGavran et. al. 1973). Laing describes the purpose of the observations by McGavran and its implications for Christian development aid. The HUP was criticized for a suspected one-sided racist attack and the neglect of complex social realities (e.g. Bosch in Frost & Hirsch 2004: 51-52; McClintock 1988: 107-112; Fong 1996). However, there is currently no better model to describe group dynamic or social-cohesive developments in the area of Christian development aid. McGavran, Donald A. [1955] 1968. The Bridges of God: A Study in the Strate.g.y of Missions. 2nd printing. New York: Friendship Press. McGavran, Donald A., Pickett, J. Waskom & Warnshuis, Abbe Livingston [1936] 1973. Church Growth and Group Conversion. 2nd ed. South Pasadena: William Carey Library. Laing, Mark 2002. Donald McGavran’s Missiology: An Examination of the Origins and Validity of Key Aspects of the Church Growth Movement, in Indian Church History Review XXXVI/1. Und Online im Internet: URL: http:/www.ubs.ac.in/Cms/Donald%20McGavran.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2020-06-25]. Frost, Michael & Hirsch, Alan 2004. The shaping of Things to come. Innovation and Mission for the 21st-Century church. 4th ed. Peabody: Hendrickson. Fong, Bruce W. 1996. Racial Equality in the Church: a Critique of the homogeneous Unit Principle in Light of a Practical Theology Perspective. Lanham, New York, London: University Press of America. McClintock, Wayne 1988. Sociological Critique of the Homogeneous Unit Principle. International Review of Mission LXXVII/305, January, 107-116. Malden: Wiley.

) are not used due to theological concerns. Reference can be made here to the current discussion about so-called religion or culture contextualized Bible translations (critically among others Lingel, Morton & Nikides 201131Lingel, Joshua, Morton, Jeff & Nikides, Bill 2011. Chrislam: How Missionaries Are Promoting an Islamized Gospel. Biola: i2 Ministries Publications.).

In this process, religious or cultural identity features are included in the translated text, with the interlinearized base text being supplied to the audience at the same time (Werner 201232It is surprising that this 3D frame representation is so lively discussed in Christian circles. The term 3D frame-model refers to interlinearization – transmission / translation – detailed paratext in a project (one book or even 3 books). The native language reader is provided with all the tools to independently conclude the base text and also to critically question it. The previous reviews revolve around fears of syncretism, doubts about the sincerity and reliability of the translation, a dissatisfaction with other religions and, last but not least, about the adherence to a philological-literal translation of the Scriptures into the idioms of this world. Werner, Eberhard 2012. Bible translation in the Orient – New Considerations. em 1/28, 3-16 Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie.

). The differences between the two texts are identified in the “paratext” (accompanying text) using footnotes, comments, cross-references or glossaries.33These include: 1. the insertion of parallel passages or cross-references from the religious environment of the scriptures of other target language groups, 2. the adaptation of the external form to other religious texts, or 3. the linguistic recourse to key terms of other religions (denominations of God, ritual terms, etc.). In some discussions, this form of contextualization (also referred to as “high spectral” or “transformative”) is equated with transformative theology and newer social-diaconal missiological approaches (e.g. Beyerhaus 2013:7-9).

34See footnote 23 on Peter Beyerhaus. An extensive examination of new theological approaches, such as the “Theology of the Social Gospel”, the “Black Theology” of Africa or “Transformation Theology” shows that evangelical-pietistic and conservative circles withdraw to a “proclamation theology”. They fail to do so against diaconal-social hermeneutic interpretations of Scripture. Of course, this does not mean that diaconal projects are not carried out, but on the contrary, in evangelical space and in pietism they are an expression of a script-oriented way of life. However, due to a suspected lack of divine theological basis, the former hermeneutical perspectives are rejected as a missiological model.

 The motivation for the contextualized translation of the Bible is by leading the audience to the base biblical text (see domestication).

It is undisputed that the translation of the Bible and the theological-hermeneutical understanding of Scripture influence each other. This is based on intuition and interpretation by the team of Bible translators. Every type of translation follows the intuition and ideology of its translators.35Rolf Furuli vividly demonstrated this in his dissertation on the theological orientation of English Bible translations compared to the New World Translation . He suggests literal translations to solve the dilemma, but unfortunately also overlooks their interpretative part in the choice of words and sentence structure (1999; see footnote 24). The theological foundations are reflected in translation. In the missiological area, one’s own theological understanding should be opened to other religious-cultural ideas for communicative reasons. The degree of opening is determined by the Skopos of those involved. In contextualized Bible translations, the included paratext is intended to help you draw conclusions about the base text and other translation options (e.g. philological-literal or interlinear). It is therefore not the stated goal to convey a transformative hermeneutics that would be based on a social-diaconal understanding.

However, the range of missiological experiments shows that anthropocentric approaches are becoming increasingly important in missiology and theology. The understanding and importance of people as Imago Dei is given great responsibility. The flip side of this development is seen as a departure from the divine. An ethical framework is of interest in this creative development.

The global church, as the guardian of the Scriptures and the keeper of the inner order of Christian life-style, is challenged to deal productively with this creative and dynamic thinking. It should be borne in mind that the majority of the ideas are internal to the Church or related to the Church.36This also includes perspectives of those interested in Christianity who are willing to actively take the risk of a Bible translation. If such far-sighted people are found from the major world religions, then they are under pressure from their own ranks to be called “converts”, at the same time they have to assert themselves from a Western Christian perspective in order not to be considered “crypto-Christians” (Schirrmacher 2014: 173 ). The problem of conversion is from a Christian point of view, the context of the theory of conversion has not yet been finally resolved. In my opinion, it is very imperialistically limited to western standards and overlooks the collectivist, social and peasant context of most cultures around the world (see below). Schirrmacher, Thomas 2013. Zur Diskussion um Insiderbewegungen in der islamischen Welt. em 29/4, 171-174. Und Online im Internet: URL: http://www.missiologie-afem.de/mediapool/79/797956/data/em-Archiv/em-201… [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2014-03-22]. These approaches are claiming to build on a biblically-based understanding just as the critic’s state. They reflect a theology about other religions that strives for rapprochement and is therefore inclusive. In contrast to this, there are some positions that reject the exclusivity of one’s own position as “true” Christianity. It is uncertain whether there is a middle position or an approximation possible.37The latest controversy over “Islam contextualized” (divine familial terminology) Bible translations has now ended at the intervention of SIL International at the World Evangelical Alliance (WEA) by the latter. Although the internal agreements between SIL International and the WEA are still pending, it has been suggested that organizations in the field of translation of biblical father-son terminology will follow a three-step approach in the future. First of all, a priority literal, if that is not possible, a close equivalent and only in exceptional cases a paraphrasing translation should be chosen, whereby the paratext always refers to the meaning in the base text. The extent to which indigenous so-called “Jesus or insider movements” adhere to so-called contextualized Bible translations is beyond the influence of western or local churches. The western (evangelical) church rejects a rejection of the tried and tested Trinitarian church language in the area of the Trinitarian denominations of God. The terms God-Father, God-Son (for Jesus) and the term Holy Spirit remain untouchable. The WEA thus follows the creeds of the Old Church (e.g. the Apostolicum, the Nicanäum, Chalcedon, etc.). However, the WEA generally welcomes the method of contextualized and linguistic-anthropological research as a starting point for mother-tongue Bible translations. For discussion: WEA Beschluss – http://www.worldea.org/images/wimg/files/2013_0429-Final%20Report%20of%2… [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2020-06-20]. SIL International Stellungnahme – http://www.sil.org/translation/sil-standards-translation-divine-familial… [Stand 2020-06-20].

Ethical (philosophical) reflections on Bible translation

The “spirit” of these developments is reflected in philosophical considerations. Although the term “postmodernity” is often used as a predicate for recent developments, it seems to be understood very different, and in some cases in opposite ways. It is so broadly defined in public that it cannot be used, but must be understood in terms of its effects. The term “postmodern” is therefore used here for its material and immaterial effects. Globalization, free market economy, democratization, capitalism, as well as the forces directed against these developments are part of it. These opposing forces of postmodernism, however, are gladly glossed over. International terrorism, international crime, the anti-capitalism movement, the socialist-communist movement, as well as the fragmentation into ever smaller national structures are part of the development.

This article focuses on the science of Bible translation. Other areas such as evangelism, socialization, martyrdom, church or community building develop similar, but discipline-oriented functions and effects. Overlap of disciplines is thereby common.

Philosophy is here understood as the output of current attitudes towards Bible translation and less as a pragmatic and communicable ideology to which a person or group is ideologically committed. In this former sense, it is a dynamic structure that always represents only a temporary snapshot. Current trends are analyzed and placed in a broader context.

Ethics represent the normative framework of a moral being in relation to an aspired ideal.

38I do not agree with Bockmühl, who describes ethics alone as the ideal “that we should live” (1995: 11). Bockmühl, Klaus 1995. Christliche Lebensführung: Eine Ethik der Zehn Gebote. Giessen: Brunnen. Nonetheless, it is also not solely about the “objective appropriateness of actions based on intersubjectively defined and constantly new rules of the game” as is announced from the evolutionary area (Schmidt-Salomon 2005: 102). Schmidt-Salomon, Michael 2005. Manifest des evolutionären Humanismus: Plädoyer für eine zeitgemäße Leitkultur. Aschaffenburg: Alibri. Ethics is ideological and represents the alignment with those norms and values (morals) that an individual would like to conform to within the framework of a social system. The personal conflict of conscience and its relationship to the collective conscience reveal the ethical framework to which the collective – also in individualism – and the individual are exposed. Social constraints and obligations, such as norms and values, and the individual’s living environment (social status, conscience, and enculturation) play a defining role. In Bible translation, the ethical ideas of ancient author cultures, the translation project management and the target group meet. The translation projects of Christian development aid, which relate to linguistic-anthropological knowledge about an ethnic group, emphasize native-speaking translators whose ethical-ideological framework. The long-term Christian character of an ethnic group, as a result of the Bible translation, in most cases only begins as a trailing development.

Bible translation, as a process and product, has an opinion-forming and conscience-shaping function. This is in common with other religions (e.g. Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism) that are based on a central oral tradition (see footnote 5) or written “Holy Text”. Derived from the inner Biblical testimony and the Church’s teaching, the Holy Spirit speaks to and enters man (Psalm 51:11; Mar 1: 8; Luk 12:12; Joh 14:26). Conversion occurs either

a) by overlaying or rejecting old ideological or belief-based content, and

b) reorienting to content that results from the knowledge of biblical content.

An individual as well as collective experience of faith results from the content recognized as a “divine history of salvation” (see footnote 36). It opens up to the believer as the key message of biblical revelation. The binding link is

a) the recognition of guilt, sinfulness and an awareness of wrongdoing towards a higher power (conflict of conscience),

b) the search and knowledge of a way of redemption through the acceptance of divine forgiveness and

c) the long-term focus on Judeo-Christian moral concepts as defined by the Bible in the respective linguistic-cultural environment.

The minimum common denominator is the acceptance of the forgiveness of sins in the work of salvation of the person Jesus Christ (Acts 17:3; 1Cor 8:6; Phil 4:7).

The epistemological development of the divine revelation takes place through the intellectual access to the Word of God. Divine action as the effect of the Holy Spirit mixes with the anthropocentric and intellectual cognitive ability of the believer. That this is done in prayer and respect for the religiously divine content of the Holy Text is a deliberate decision. Such an anthropocentric process reflects every religious perception of sacred texts. Incidentally, all religions meet on this level in dealing with their own sacred texts. The polemics at this level against Christianity, but also from the Christian camp, are disrespectful with regard to other religions. This polemic does not do justice to the models of Jesus of Nazareth, as well as other religious mediators. Human intervention in relation to the divine must not forget the advanced work of the vicarious work of salvation. Only the kenotic turning of Jesus of Nazareth to mankind and the individual shows the personal responsibility of repentance and the Christian way of life.

The conscience of religious people is open to knowledge from their respective scriptures. In the Christian world, the process of conscientious cognition based on the Petrine formula from 1Peter 2:2 and 2Peter 3:18 is called “growth in faith”. It is understood so broadly that ultimately all of the experience gathered falls under it. It may also be critically questioned whether organic growth is meant here either by quality or quantity or both. Such thinking is about an accumulation of knowledge, experience, or even “deification” of thinking in a mythical sense. Peter himself relates the formula to a collection of knowledge and implementation from the Holy Scriptures. This simplification does not finally describe the complexity of the succession in order to steadfastly and purposefully adhere to the teaching of Jesus of Nazareth. However, the ongoing and dynamic shaping of conscience is a crucial factor in converting and practicing religious traditions.

Leading and trailing function of Bible translation as science

The worldwide church and congregation (Corpus Christi) has a two-fold mission. As the guardian of the Holy Scriptures, she is supposed to preserve the contents of the book and to pass on the history of the Judeo-Christian God with Israel and the community (trailing function). Second, it is tasked with distributing this content in a dynamic and progressive manner. The goal is to reach the whole world with biblical content adapted to the culture and language (leading function). At the same time, the local church contextualizes the biblical content into its linguistic and cultural environment. This happens in the context of internal contextualization. This form of trailing orientation happens automatically in the context of homiletics and evangelism. Such corresponds to the external contextualization in Christian development aid, in which the translation of the Bible itself generates church structures. This orientation follows the leading function. Both orientations serve the church (Christian community) and are therefore promoted or accompanied out of it (see Figure 1). Purely in terms of translation technology, Bible translations are doable without Christian involvement. An example being biblical study texts in Islamic religious education. Not to forget that western non-followers of that religion also do translations of other religious base texts as educational products.

If the dual trailing and leading orientation is missing, then one would assume, as in Islam, an immediate direct divine revelation, the image of which is stored in the divine place as the original revelation. This would not be translatable because it is part and print of divinity itself.39Suras 2:23, 185; 3: 101; 6:19; 10: 37-38; 16: 102; 17: 106; 22:16; 27: 6; 97: 1. In the foreword to the online edition of a German revision of the Koran, the authors not mentioned write: “So the Koran is not an inspired human word, but a literal revelation from the creator of all beings and things.” The Inlibration of the Qur’anic revelation should not be interpreted as a static element, but rather gains a spiritual resonance body in the recitation, which is filled with life. In the recitation, the Qur’an is contextualized, linguistically in some places, but culturally everywhere (Neuwirth 2007:44-45).40Neuwirth, Angelika 2007. Studien zur Komposition der mekkanischen Suren. Zweite erweiterte Aufl. Berlin: de Gruyter. Und Online im Internet: URL: http://books.google.de/books?id=4GZK6Qm5u8cC&printsec=frontcover&hl=it&s… [Stand 2020-06-11]. It is therefore also understood as an imitation of the Prophet Mohammed.41The Qur’an therefore more closely corresponds to the image of Christ and its recitation as an imitatio of the Prophet Mohammed and Mary’s presentation as a representative. It should be noted that the ultimate comparison always fails due to the heterogeneous constellation of a religious entity. The recitation of the Qur’an and its effects correspond to homiletics and evangelism in Christianity (see below). The process of contextualization shifts both to the recitation and its oral interpretation, as well as to the audience, the homilist and the evangelist (leading role of the Bible translation).

Inspiration and Bible Translation

The authoritative writings of Judaism (Hebrew Bible) and Christianity (New Testament) are indirect revelations of human authors. This is accepted for the biblical scriptures and is based on an open understanding of inspiration. The understanding of inspiration in Holy Scripture is difficult to grasp, since verbal or dictation inspiration does not have a comprehensive effect due to the findings that are critical of the text and the lack of a “primal” text. Attempts to transfer verbal inspiration to the authors (e.g. the Chicago Declarations42w/a 1978. The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, JETS 21, 289-296.; Jeising 2012:35-55; Peters 2012:148-15343Jeising, Thomas 2012. Was bedeutet Inspiration?, in Mayer, Thomas (ed.): Die Bibel – Ganze Inspiration Ganze Wahrheit Ganze Einheit, 34-59. Nürnberg: VTR. Peters, Benedikt 2012. Kriterien für eine gute Bibelübersetzung, in Mayer, Thomas (ed.): Die Bibel – Ganze Inspiration Ganze Wahrheit Ganze Einheit, 138-154. Nürnberg: VTR.), at the same time, fail to emphasize the inaccuracies contained in human behaviour (Mildenberger 1992:2244Mildenberger, Friedrich 1992. Biblische Dogmatik. Eine Biblische Theologie in dogmatischer Perspektive. Band 1: Prole.g.omena: Verstehen und Geltung der Bibel. 3. Bde. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer: Kohlhammer.). The Chicago Declarations recently came into focus of the German Evangelical Alliance. From there it was warned that this should be “the decisive yardstick for Bible faith” (see footnotes 42, 68). It should be noted that the Chicago declarations also leave scope to define other forms of inspiration.

In the field of Bible translation, the question of inspiration becomes even more difficult, since Bible translators rarely see their product or the process of translation as inspired and directly guided by God (the author is not aware of such a quote). Even followers of verbal inspiration (see above) avoid describing a Bible translation as an inspired work. This is only allowed for the pre-critical “original” text, which is beyond our reach and reflected in the “base text”. Nevertheless, the followers of Jesus are inspired by the truth of the faith and the blessing of the Holy Spirit (e.g. John 14:26). This enables them to interpret the divine influence on the base text and its translation. Scripture thus becomes Holy Scripture. Basically, inspiration reveals itself to the believers as experience or effect inspiration (more on this below).

This does not mean that the base text that is before us would not be a divinely inspired work, but this approach simply expresses that the phenomenon of divine inspiration is beyond the knowledge of man. Nonetheless, the real evidence of divine work and speech can be found in the biblical writings:

Formulations such as “God speaks” (e.g. Genesis 26:2; Exodus 6:6; Isa 40:1),
the literal citation of God (e.g. 2Mose 5:1; 9:1),
the speeches of the prophets as divine messengers or, finally, of Christ as a human representative of divine transcendence (detailed Pache 1967:74-75; see also footnotes 42, 43, 63, 68).
testify the claim of global revelation. The path and the materialization of inspiration in oral and written traditions remain open. The way people transmit, hear, and write down the traditions only vaguely describes this phenomenon (see Figure 4).

While the text-critical maintenance of the base text and its philological-exegetical translations correspond to the first order of conservation, linguistic-target group-oriented approaches to Bible translation fulfil the second order of multiplication. At this point it should be emphasized that both orders complement each other and are not mutually exclusive. A balancing act results from whether the target audience, that is the addressees, are introduced to the basic biblical text or whether the base text is adapted to the recipient in an adapted form. To achieve the latter the objective of “experienced” or “successful communication” comes in focus. Nobody takes this responsibility away from the worldwide church, but it is incumbent upon it and the individuals belonging to it.

It can be seen in church history and the history of Bible translation that a constructive coexistence of philological-verbal and communicative Bible translations is the overriding goal in Christian development aid. Literal translations usually play an important role in the first translation phase. Native-speaking translators do not want to make mistakes and transport the text as close as possible to the languages of the base text. Since this phase shapes a young mother-tongue church, later communicative Bible translations are at first glance viewed critically from a theological perspective. However, it is only in the variety of target group-oriented Bible translations that independent and reproductive church life will develop. Because of this perspective, it would be a mistake not to look at the entire context including the biblical scriptural revelations accessible to a language or cultural group, as well as its church history and political background. In view of the above-mentioned question about the discrepancy between theological narrowing and missiological breadth, this applies all the more. It must therefore be treated with caution if theological-missiological departures in other parts of the world are rejected theologically just because they are likely to challenge Western theology.

Function of Bible translation

In detail, the above-mentioned follow-up function of Bible translation will now be considered. The conservative mandate to pass on the biblical content relates to both the oral and the written tradition of Scripture. The basis is the “text”, which is available as the base text, as well as the oral tradition, which result from the interpretations of the Hebrew Bible. Oral tradition can be traced back to the original tradition of the entire Biblical texts as hearsay. This includes the events of creation, the patriarchs, the history of Israel and later building on the Messiah Jesus of Nazareth and the Church as the Body of Christ. Non-Biblical source texts that build on the content of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament must be included. On the other hand, the “text” also includes implied communicative content (implicatures), derivable principles and contemporary witnesses about biblical events. The biblical content develops its own right in comparison and with consideration of outside witnesses. Let us look at this in detail.

Try to keep the oral tradition alive. For example, there are some approaches to restore the “original gospels” (e.g. Lamsa 1963; Schwarz & Schwarz 199345Lamsa, George M. 1963. Die Evangelien in aramäischer Sicht. St. Gallen: Neuer Johannes Verlag. Schwarz, Günther & Schwarz, Jörn 1993. Das Jesus-Evangelium. München: Ukkam.). When trying to retranslate, one repeatedly comes across the historical limit of the intuitively interpreted context of the transcript. An objective review is only possible with great uncertainties. However, it is clear that today’s canons of the base texts were preceded by an oral tradition. Contents were formulated, interpreted and placed in internal and external contexts. After the canons were put together, they were arranged according to the size or length of the scriptures and thus followed the literate principles of the antique. This gave rise to the template taken up during Reformation, which serves as a model for today’s Bible translations with only a few changes.46A notable exception is the translation by Christiane Nord (translation scientist) and Klaus Berger (New Testament), structured according to the presumed writing of the New Testament books and apocrypha. Berger, Klaus & Nord, Christiane 1999. Das Neue Testament und frühchristliche Schriften. Frankfurt am Main: Insel. The oral tradition has left its mark on the written text, which is important to the science of Bible translation.
Today’s tendencies are falling to Christian development aid of oral Bible translations as different formats. Those tendencies are influenced by zeitgeist or spirit of times, and cultural-linguistic necessities. The formats are narrative hearing product (e.g. Chronological Bible Storying), video productions (e.g. Jesus film) or creative performances (e.g. dance or theatre performance) also the way of back translations as proof of comprehensibility.47Oral, visual and audible products are especially necessary for non-literate ethnic groups. This form of Bible translation takes up the oral (aural) method of tradition and the lack of script orientation among peoples. All of these products are based on written texts or develop from them by aiming at a future literacy. You run the risk of interpreting the “text”. At this point it must be said that epistemological recognition and hermeneutic interpretation always interprets (see Figure 4). For this reason, the question should rather be which mechanisms are suitable and desired as a framework for this necessary interpretation.

Subsequent function of Bible translation

The subsequent function of Bible translation also includes its church-defining moment. This includes both the strengthening of existing communities and gathering the global church around the biblical canons. The centrepiece of unity is the life and work of Jesus of Nazareth, or Jesus Christ, the namesake of Christianity (Acts 11:26). From this central element, the history of Christendom developed in its theological and missiological orientation. In the post-apostolic phase of the old church, the biblical base text and the traditions surrounding it represent the sole basis for the development and transmission of theological content. For this reason, their conservation as biblical content is the foundation of the global church and its local institutions (“glocal”).

It is not a single translation of the Bible as a liturgical text (e.g. Luther Bible) that is decisive, but the entire understanding of the faithful in the form of an agreement. A collective understanding of biblical content as well as individual cognition arises in the context of the entire community. Nevertheless, a special Bible translation should be understood as a centre of community for group dynamic reasons. Reciting and memorizing a text together as a joint effort has a group-strengthening function. It is therefore advisable for larger ecclesial communities to commit themselves to a text to base, ritualize and repeat texts (e.g. Psalm 1 and 23; Our Father; Genesis 1:1-3 and Joh 1:1-4).

Without a doubt, access to the ancient Hebrew, Old Aramaic and Koiné-Greek base text in your own linguistic idiom is of central importance. This is shown both by the early translations (e.g. into Gothic, Slavic, Aramaic), as well as the need for native language access to biblical content, as demonstrated by John Wycliffe and later in the Reformation. It is entirely possible for people to follow a translation on a philological-literal level that follows the base textual grammatical and literal structure. However, such interlinear or literal translations require interpretation by the Church. This internal contextualization has a long history (e.g. Lücke 182348„Die Irrationalität des heiligen Originals soll im Bewußtseyn der Kirche lebhaft erhalten werden. Eine freye, mehr oder weniger modern Uebersetzung verstattet dem Uebersetzer zu viel Willkühr und macht das lesende Volk ungewiß und unsicher über den ursprünglichen Schriftsinn.“ Lücke, Friedrich 1823. Kurtzgefaßte Geschichte der Lutherischen Bibelübersetzung und Beantwortung der Frage, ob und in wie fern dieselbe als kirchliche Uebersetzung beizubehalten sey, oder nicht? Zeitschrift für gebildete Christen der Evangelischen Kirche Heft 3, 1-51, und Heft 4, 35-101. Elberfeld: Büschler.), it takes place in exegesis and interpretation. Homiletics and evangelism transports the biblical content into the relevant linguistic-cultural context. Looking back on the reformatory work, it also becomes clear that communicative principles require easy-to-understand translations. The 39 revisions made during Luther’s lifetime were due to exegesis, but also to the cognitive understanding of the readers and listeners of the biblical content (Metzger 1993: 230-231; Lücke 1823).49Metzger, Bruce M. 1993. Der Kanon des Neuen Testament: Entstehung, Entwicklung, Bedeutung. Düsseldorf: Patmos. In addition, an initial translation always represents an impulse for further translations, since it stimulates corrections, adjustments and other changes in the translation.

It is this the trailing conserving element of the Bible translation that leads to constant linguistic-cultural revisions and adaptations of the Bible text. Since human language and culture are in an ongoing process of change, the communicative garb of the biblical content must also be further developed and adapted. This target group-oriented focus on smaller language units within a larger cultural structure corresponds to this language and cultural change. At the same time, new findings in textual criticism and archaeology flow into the revision process, since the requirement for a Bible translation to be up-to-date must be given. The revision is an important part of the preserving function of the Bible translation. On the one hand, it guarantees a language group a moderate access to the biblical content; on the other hand it contextualizes the content into the contemporary language and culture of the recipient in a dynamic and creative way. In the revision, a team of Bible translators generates the Scripture text in an updated way into the now and at the same time prepares the way for the future. Revision work is a history of tradition, regardless of whether a revision continues a tradition (e.g. Luther translation; uniform translation) or whether a creative translation tradition begins (e.g. Volxbibel, Insel translation).

New formats of the traditioning of the Bible, such as online Bibles, oral Bibles or biblical products in media format are performing creative ways to bring the biblical text closer to the target group. The recipients themselves specify the communicative framework. Communicational conditions are established for the respective target group, which form the framework for the translation decisions. These framework conditions represent the functional plan of the translation (Nord 2001:11-12, 29; 2003:10).50Nord, Christiane [1997] 2001. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Explained. Reprint. Manchester: St. Jerome. Nord, Christiane 2003. Textanalyse und Übersetzen: Theoretische Grundlagen, Methode und didaktische Anwendung einer übersetzungsrelevanten Textanalyse. 3. Aufl. Tübingen: Julius Groos. In functional models of translation, the Skopos (the objective) of translation determines these framework conditions. A translation plan sets out the guidelines between the translators, the client and the recipients (ibid.). However, ethical responsibility rests with the translators and is set out in the translation plan. This plan also specifies whether it should be an interlinear, a philological-literal or a communicative-idiomatic translation. The understanding of communication and the resulting communicative strategies must also be demonstrated to those involved.

The principle of philological school translation “as faithful as possible and as free as necessary” is not sufficient to explain the understanding of communicative translation because it is unclear. The intention of the author of a text, who wrote this text by intension, would be ignored in verbatim rendering (Nord 2011: 117, 119, 121-122). Nord therefore suggests loyalty and fairness as valid parameters of translation.51Nord, Christiane 2011. So treu wie möglich? Die linguistische Markierung kommunikativer Funktionen und ihre Bedeutung für die Übersetzung literarischer Texte, in Nord, Christiane (ed.): Funktionsgerechtigkeit und Loyalität: Die Übersetzung literarischer und religiöser Texte aus funktionaler Sicht. Arbeiten zur Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens und Dolmetschens. Band 33, 117-143. Berlin: Frank & Timme. (Original Aufsatz: erschienen in Keller, Rudi [Hrsg.] (1997): Linguistik und Literaturübersetzen. Tübingen: Narr, 35-59.). Elsewhere, in the context of the historical review of the science of translation, the invisibility of translators and their influence on translation are discussed (Venuti 2008: 1, 4-5).52Venuti, Lawrence S. [1995] 2008. The Translator’s Invisibility: A history of translation. 2nd ed. London: Routledge. What is meant by this, is that the more fluently a translation is to be understood, the more clearly the original author of the work can speak. Based on this statement, Venuti commits itself to the original and leaves the question of the model of translation open. Loyalty as an ethical standard is very well suited to give mutual trust to those involved in the translation. Loyalty is understood towards the original, the translation and those involved in the translation plan. Functionality describes the translational goals defined in the translation plan. It is crucial that the translation process is functional. From an ethical point of view, the functional approach forms a group-related theory based on collective participation.

After the church-strengthening function of the Bible translation was discussed here, the leading and shaping function now comes into focus.

Leading function of the Bible translation

In addition to the trailing conservative element of the Bible translation and thus the element of building and strengthening the church, there is also that element that forms and shapes the church. This is demonstrated in the leading function of Bible translation. Such includes the concern to provide information in the Bible translation about the person of Jesus of Nazareth and his life’s work. The history of the Church and its predecessor is grouped around the people of Israel and around any information conveyed in the Gospels and the New Testament letters about the divine will for humans, by the term salvation history. Although there is a lot associated with it today, it still roughly describes the common thread for the care and revelation of the Judeo-Christian deity to humanity (Cranfield in Iversen 2003:155).53Iversen, Gertrud Yde 2003. Epistolarität und Heilsgeschichte: Eine rezeptionsästhetische Auslegung des Römerbriefs. Münster: LIT.

The leading function begins with the work on the biblical “text” itself. The internal connections, the historicity of the scriptures, as well as the personal address of the audience develop their own dynamics. This prompts the reader to think and reflect on the biblical content. The later use of groups within the church with the “Bible text” is based on this. When studying and applying the content to personal life, the product “Bible translation” unfolds its own dynamic. In Christian circles, this is referred to as the “speaking of God” or the “speaking to God” based on the Shma Yisroel Shma Israel “Hear Israel” (Deut 6:4) (see Figure 1). The Word of God is said to have a personal impact that touches the conscience of the audience. This can be an individual as well as a collective experience. In “experiencing” the Word of God, future work is shaded as an experience. The Church implements this in Christian development aid by the diaconate and in evangelism.

Bible translation generates the gathering of like-minded and interested people and the creation of communities. The product as such forms the centre around which the interested parties gather. This happens because the Holy Scripture describe the life and work of Jesus of Nazareth in a contextualized manner and reflects it in a target group-oriented manner. Online Bibles (z. B. BasisBibel54BasisB(ibel): Grund genug zu leben – Die Bibel interaktiv. Neues Testament 2010. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Und Online: URL: http://www.basisbibel.de/basisbibel-online/bibeltext/ [Stand 2014-02-06]., Open Bible55Offene Bibel. Online Bibel. 3 Bibeln in einem Projekt. Studienversion, Leichte Sprache, Lesefassung. Frankfurt: Offene Bibel eV Online: URL: http://www.offene-bibel.de/ [Stand 2014-02-20]., or Volxbibel) are giving a good example of how groups of interested people could seek and find products on the Internet in a way to make the Bible an expression of their own theological understanding. Bible translation as a product and process has a target group-oriented and heterogeneous effect. The understanding of the biblical content expressed in the translated “text” (also audio text, video, or theatre) reflects its epistemological perception in the actors. This interpretative process works in the audience. In response to the message, there is therefore a group dynamic collection in larger units, either such as churches or parishes, or also in smaller communities (e.g. clubs, house meetings, action groups, cell communities). Strengthening and consolidating them has already been described as a trailing factor in Bible translation.56At this point it should be emphasized that this group dynamic development takes place in all religious and social processes in which interest groups are constituted by a common content. For Islam, Poston described this as a form of Islamic expansion (part of the jihad effort and the da’hwa invitation; 1992: 126-127). Poston, Larry 1992. Islamic Da’wah in the West: Muslim Missionary Activity and the Dynamics of Conversion to Islam. New York: Oxford University Press.

In Christian development aid there are enough examples of how after the solemn introduction called dedication a church is slowly constituted in an ethnic group by a new translation (Sanneh 2003:10, 25).57The solemnity expresses gratitude to God and instructs the translation to work now in the native-speaking believers and in the Church. Not only the teaching assignment on the biblical word counts, but also the diaconal assignment. The fact that ethnic groups receive a tool for reading and writing programs through the process of Bible translation leads to their internal and external appreciation, as well as to their public recognition. Sanneh, Lamin 2003. Whose Religion is Christianity? The Gospel beyond the West. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Not for nothing is the “century of the Bible translation movement” in correspondence with the “century of Christian development aid” (ibid. and Latourette 1937:xv)58Latourette, Kenneth Scott 1937. A History of the Expansion of Christianity, Vol 1. New York and London: Harper.. Church planting and strengthening runs in many cases – not exclusively – with Bible translation in parallel. The movement of the translation of the Bible developed an interdisciplinary momentum which:

generates new theories of translation (z. B. dynamic / functional equivalence, functional model relevance theoretical approach, cultural context models),
evokes linguistic models (e.g. text discourse models) and also
induces a critical view of missiological-theological questions (e.g. inspiration, hermeneutical understanding).
All of these developments approach the science of Bible translation from the outside through interdisciplinary questions. Linguistics, translation sciences, psychology, anthropology and sociological sciences are challenging the translation of the Bible. Specifically to the account of current developments based on new models and questions. Whether and to what extent, for example, linguistic and social developments flow into the translation process should be considered on individual case.

A recent example is the Norwegian Bible translation Bible 2011. The Norwegian Bible Society has worked over 12 years on a translation that has been translated together with well-known Norwegian writers. Just the level of awareness of the writers and the colloquial orientation of the translation have led to their outstanding success.59Bibel 2011. Oslo: Norwegian Bible Society. This example shows that literature is also based on the emotional world, and text, paratext and meta-communicative elements (intonation, language style elements, implications, conceptual context, etc.) complement each other in the overall impression of a product.

But the opposite can be observed too. Bible translations that have been created over many years are ignored or scorned. A distinction must be made here whether it is a matter of first translation for a language group or a revision or new translation in a language group that still has at least one Bible translation. In the context of Christian development aid and with regard to first translations, there are various reasons for such a rejection:

1) A language group is not yet able to understand the “text”. This is the case when for example, there was an inadequate Christian introduction to the content, the literacy process is still in its infancy, or dialectological variants make understanding difficult.

2) The “text” is not contextualized cultural-linguistically and thus does not affect the audience’s cognitive language perception. The hurdle to gain access to the “text” is too great (e.g. accusation of Christian falsification of the biblical content),

3) External factors, e.g. political or military influence prevent or complicate the handling of the “text”.

Theological-religious concerns prevail in revision translations.

1) If a Christian group cannot detach itself from the traditional text and has already built up its own Christian vocabulary or verbal material (church language),

2) If socialization with a Bible text took place from early childhood,

3) If denominational trenches are opened by a Bible text.

It is striking in Christian development aid that, above all, if the people involved in the translation are criticized, the judgment against the Bible translation itself is equally negative. Here we find

interreligious / cross-religious (e.g. accusation of adulteration),60In contexts in which Christians are oppressed or persecuted, the rejection and criticism of the Bible translations as falsifications and Christian propaganda is great. Behind it are at least religious, but mostly also politically fueled prejudices. The accusation of colonialism and capital imperialism is not uncommon. The translation of the Bible, as a central element of Christian development aid, is in the crossfire of criticism. It is important to listen carefully, as there is often justified criticism.
linguistic (z. B. dialect choice)
translational (e.g. post-colonial translation models) and
sociological (e.g. serving social classes)
causes.

History has shown that colonial aspirations and Christian development aid often went hand in hand and were characterized by the nationals as arrogance towards the West. Translations reflect good evidence of this imperial colonialism (e.g. Kipling’s Jungle Books; Fabri’s defense of colonial exploitation; Robinson 1997:32, 36, 45, 65).61Kipling, Rudyard [1894] 2000. The Jungle Books. Harlow: Penguin. Fabri, Friedrich 1879. Bedarf Deutschland der Kolonien? Barmen: Rheinische Mission. Robinson, Douglas 1997. Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Robert de Kenton published a translation of the Koran under the influence of Islamic influence in Spain, which tried to denature the Koran. Islam is depicted as fraud and Muhammad as its propagandist (Chouraqui 1994: 17-18). Chouraqui, André N. 1994. Reflexionen über Problematik und Methode der Übersetzung von Bibel und Koran. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. Robinson beschreibt die unterschiedlichen Formen die der koloniale Einfluss auf Übersetzungen genommen hat (1997:31-32; 36, 60). Robinson, Douglas 1997. Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained. Manchester: St. Jerome. Basnett and Triverdi summarize the colonial influence: “The act of translation always involves more than language. Translations are always embedded in cultural and political systems, and in history. For too long translation was seen as purely an aesthetic act, and ideological problems were disregarded. Yet the strategies employed by translators reflect the context [of power interests and values] in which texts are produced (1996: 6).” Bassnett, Susan & Trivedi, Harish (eds.) 1999. Post-Colonial Translation – Theory and Practice. London: Routledge. It is primarily African theologians who raise their voices in this regard and admonish a colonialist language style – also in Bible translations – (Mojola & Wendland 2003:22-23).62Mojola, Aloo Osotsi & Wendland, Ernst R. 2003. Scripture Translation in the Era of Translation studies, in Wilt, Timothy (ed.): Bibletranslation: Frames of Reference, 1-26. Manchester: St. Jerome. The leading role of Bible translation then becomes a pioneer in advancing literacy, research on people and language, and mother tongue education. However, this is part of the always challenging leading function of Bible translations that develop from the experiences of the previous approaches. Challenges due to language and cultural change, and scientific new knowledge of the base text or the translation are integrated into these revision translations. For this very reason, it can also be called the creative office of Bible translation; this represents an external contextualization.

The ethical implications of the trailing and leading church is fundamentally challenged by the functions of Bible translations. On the one hand, the Church itself rests on the foundation of the Holy Scripture, at the same time it is its keeper, which it derives from a divine mandate taken from the Holy Scripture. In some Biblical passages, reference is made to the instructions on the preservation of the Holy Scriptures or the Word of God (e.g. Luke 11:28; Joh 8:55; 2Cor 4:2; Heb 4:12; Rev. 22:18-19).63Detailed list of God’s direct speech or citation in Pache (1967:74-75). Pache, René 1967. Inspiration und Autorität der Bibel. 3.Aufl. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. In addition to such biblical reference, the church invokes an apostolic authority, which it derives from church history via the early church (Acts and New Testament letters). The interpretation of the Biblical revelation by exegesis, homiletics and evangelism in turn flows into the linguistic-cultural contextualization. An ethical reflection on a transcendent source and authority is relativized by the anthropocentrically, scientifically intuitive and interpretative “translation” of the divine revelation into the idioms of mankind. In addition to a functional translation plan, the framework conditions for the Bible translation project must be mutually agreed. The parties involved commit themselves to each other as well as to the higher transcendent authority. This is usually asserted by functional justice in the transmission of the biblical content.

Incarnatory Principle of Bible Translation

Ethical reflections on Bible translation would not be conclusive without looking at the meaning of the incarnation. The incarnatory principle of Bible translation describes the dynamic and recurring process of translating biblical content into certain contexts (Werner 2011:328-329). The incarnation principle describes the transition of transcendence into the reality of this world. This communicative process is based on self-transmission, which was realized in Kenosis (God emptying himself in Jesus) and Condescension (God leaving his sphere in Jesus). God reveals himself in the human representation of Jesus of Nazareth. Although the mystery surrounding this process cannot be clarified, it opened the way to transfer this process across space, time, language and cultural boundaries. The translation therefore reflects this unique process in a recurring, timeless and spaceless way. The associated open and dynamic process allows the anthropocentric use of different translational theories, as well as the definition of different priorities in the Bible translation. The prohibitions on adulteration within the Bible relate to the biblically conveyed principles (see hermeneutics of the principles) and not the linguistic-cultural contextualization.

The incarnation of Jesus of Nazareth was not seen by the Old Church as a static and complete element of the divine plan of salvation, but as the basis of the recurring offer of salvation in this world. The formation of different theological traditions, the translation of different base texts (canons) as well as a centrifugal global orientation of the church towards all ethnic and linguistic groups hindered a central control of the entire body of Christ.64Above all, the destruction of Jerusalem and the scattering of Christians around the world (not all parts of the world!) Led to a plurality that is reflected in contextualized Christianity. For this purpose, a target group-oriented, heterogeneous dynamic orientation towards local implementation has become standard in the translation tradition. This relates and is obvious in the spread of Christianity and the many church forms. In Bible translation, this has led to interdenominational, interreligious and interdisciplinary translation projects. We find therefore no single claim or sole validity of a congregation to a Bible translation.65Furuli vividly illustrated this using the New World Translation (NWÜ) of Jehovah’s Witnesses. Since every translation of the Bible is intuitive, interpretative and theologically pre-determined, none can and should not be claimed to be unique (1999). (see also footnote 24 above). All translations of the Bible are public and thus open to criticism but also to use. This also describes the proclaiming claim of Bible translation as a public work. Finally, the intuitive interpretative orientation of the Bible translation leads to a theological and also zeitgeist-dependent influence.

The variety of translation options results in framework conditions that are reflected on the one hand in the biblical text itself and on the other hand in the perception and acceptance of the global church. The biblical text reveals the speeches, deeds and effects of the prophets, apostles and Christ. The beginnings of the church are sketched out and served the old church as well as today as a guideline against syncretism and sectarianism. This inner-biblical authoritative claim (Pache 1967:74-75) demands a systematic access to communicative content. This communicative content is not contained in the words but in the Biblical context. Implicatures, meta-textual and inter-textual information result from the biblical context. These express principles that, as communicative content, overcome time and space. The principles that can be derived from the speeches, sermons and parables of Jesus become universal in the global church. The work of salvation itself is reduced to the core “Belief in Jesus the Lord” (Acts 16:31). A hermeneutic of principles conveys these meta-textual claims, which are attributed to divine origin in the Hebrew Bible and in the New Testament. The ethical framework for interpreting these claims is described in the subsequent and leading function of Bible translation.

The concept of incarnation as used here can be criticized by the fact that the one-time representative appearance in space and time would be relativized if it was transformed into a recurring event. This is also obvious in modern theological approaches, so the criticism. On the other hand it relativizes the divine work of salvation. It is countered by such a reproach that the path has already been taken with “the translations” of the Old Church in order to overcome space and time. Such eschatological orientation is understood to be valid until the Christ comes again. The “translation mandate”, as a missiological imperative of the hour, is to be derived from the developments around the divine revelation. The expansion from the local to the global focus of the offer of salvation through Jesus of Nazareth in the turn is initiated at

the Court of the Gentiles in the Temple (Mt 21:12-15)
the non-Jewish Dekapolis (Mar 7:31)
the Samaritans (Joh 4:4), and
a general global orientation (Mar 16:15; Mat 28:18-20).
The transfer of the life and work of Jesus of Nazareth and the history of the first churches into the idioms of humanity reflects the history of the translation of the Bible. This in particular is exemplified in the biographical details about the person of Christ and the becoming of the early church. It would be different if, instead of the “glocal” orientation, it was solely a divine code of law or a catalog of rules that would be addressed to a certain group (e.g. religiously unique communities).

Another criticism should be mentioned here. It comes from representatives of the literal-philological transfer of the base text as static and unique and so doing justice to incarnation. In passing on the base text, the unity of the global church would be guaranteed by the collection of local churches around the unifying inspired Bible text. The prerequisite for this is the assumption that the biblical content is passed on in the most unchanged and globally identical lexical-concordant manner. In the end, translation would only be possible as an interlinearization. This argument must be countered by the fact that inspiration in this idea is reduced to reproduction and a static understanding. This should be based on a unique divine text, the effect of which would be inherent in the text. In such a case, the material text itself would contain a divine value.66In a sense, this would apply to the Islamic revelation, the inliberation of which originates from the image of the original Qur’an (Burgmer 2007: 24). The Vedas, on the other hand, do not develop their divine value in form, but in the development of the believer. As a consequence, they are translatable, but only effective in contextualized form (Prabhavananda & Manchester 1957: xi). The original philological-literal translation of other sacred texts, for example in the literary history of the Greek myths or of creation myths, was based on modern translation principles in order to make the text understandable (Schwab 2005). Burgmer, Christoph 2007. Licht ins Dunkel: Der Koran als philologischer Steinbruch (Ein Gespräch mit Christoph Luxenberg), in Burgmer, Christoph (ed.): Streit um den Koran: Die Luxenberg-Debatte: Standpunkte und Hintergründe, 18-38. 3. Aufl. Berlin: Hans Schiler. Prabhavananda, Swami & Manchester, Frederick 1957. The Upanishads: Breath of the Eternal. New York: New American Library. Schwab, Gustav 2005. Die schönsten Sagen des klassischen Altertums. München: dtv. In contrast, the oral traditions and eyewitness accounts of the life of Jesus of Nazareth show different human perspectives. In the case of Luke’s Gospel, it is an interpreted collection of statements (Luke 1:1-4). This is supplemented by the pseudepigraphers, the apocrypha and the deuterocanonical writings, some of which are canonical, some of which serve for teaching, but in all cases describe the environment around the turn of the times. Such writings complement the narratives about Jesus of Nazareth. Furthermore, the development, tradition and collection of the Biblical canons in church history indicate a dynamic and creative use of the church with the term “revelation” (Clarke 1999: 321).67Clarke, Kent D. 1999. Original Text or Canonical Text? Questioning the Shape of the New Testament Text we Translate, in Porter, Stanley E. & Hess, Richard S. (eds.): Translating the Bible: Problems and Prospects, 281-322. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. It must be assessed as “open”. This does not mean that it can be expanded arbitrarily, but that it is based on different text templates in the context of different translation traditions. The incarnatory principle derived from this is conveyed in the creative and dynamic transmission of events around the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament into the idioms and cultures of those who feel addressed.

The task of the translation of the Bible remains to give the language groups and microcultures of the world access to the traditional and conserved biblical content (first, revision and new translations). Due to the increasing influence of global traffic and national languages, language and culture change and death is helpful at first glance within the context of media networking due to a better sociolinguist understanding of processes. On closer inspection, however, bilingualism and multilingualism in minority contexts force strong social restrictions on peoples and individuals. Mostly the mother tongue is shifted to everyday life and not developed as an educational or traffic language. In this case, the cultural diversity of humanity is reduced. Bible translation contributes to the development of new Christian faith and successor communities in the form of the church and the community. These, in turn, promote the dynamic and creative diversity that reflects the plurality of the global human community. The different canons of the biblical text reflect this plurality.

Inspiration – Sacred Texts

It has already been mentioned above that inspiration is not perceived as an impartible good, especially in the Bible translation. In other words, inspiration is not interpreted as an inherent part of the text, which would then be transferred in the translation. Such content cannot be recorded communicatively. This idea would only be imaginable through a mythical process that is beyond the control of the translators. If the process is shifted to the “level of belief” and the base biblical text is assigned a superimposed divine breath, it remains undetermined how this is reflected in the translation. The usual ideas about dictation or verbal inspiration are of little help.68A plea for a form of verbal and dictation inspiration is given in the publication of the Bibelbund e.V. Peters, Benedikt 2012. Fehlerlosigkeit – was sonst?, in Mayer, Thomas (ed.): Die Bibel – Ganze Inspiration Ganze Wahrheit Ganze Einheit, 97-114. Nürnberg: VTR. The Bibelbund’s commitment to the Chicago Declarations can be found at: Online: URL: http://bibelbund.netzwerkplatz.de/htm/2003-3-03.html [Stand 2020-06-20].

It is noted from many sides that the doctrine of verbal and dictation inspiration does not reflect the handling of the Hebrew Scriptures by New Testament authors and by Jesus of Nazareth. Their relaxed approach to interpreting and applying the Jewish tradition indicates a human understanding of tradition (e.g. Enns 2005:15-16).69Enns starts from the thesis that just as Jesus is God and man at the same time, so it is with the Bible. It is 100% of both divine and human origin. His understanding of inspiration is based on an effect and effect inspiration so far, since Enns emphasizes the divine and human side equally (2005: 17-19). Enns, Peter 2005. Inspiration and Incarnation: Evangelicals and the Problem of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker Academics. Furthermore, the biblical writings are closely linked to non-biblical writings, which, however, permit other interpretations and in some cases also prejudice biblical content (e.g. creation myths such as Enuma Elish or the Gilgamesh Epos; le.g.al codes such as the Codex of Hammurabi or the Nuzi documents; Enns 2005:26-27, 31). If one compares these texts around the environment of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament with the biblical books, then the argument of its uniqueness fades or levels out. The question remains as to how the divine “inspiration” affected the Judeo-Christian texts when surrounding literature produced similar content. It can also be assumed that the biblical authors knew their way around the environment and that there were mutual influences.

The various arguments that criticize a verbal or dictation inspiration idea anchored in the text or in the Meta-text are not taken up here.70From a critical point of view, θεόπνευστος theopneustos “breathed in / entered by God” is a hapax legomenon from 2Tim 3:16, since there are no comparative texts. Also πᾶσα γραφὴ pasa graphä “all scripture” is not a conclusive proof in itself, since at best it could be the Jewish scriptures, thus excluding the New Testament. Also Joh 10:35 καὶ οὐ δύναται λυθῆναι ἡ γραφή kai ou dunatai luthänai ä graphä “and the Scripture cannot be resolved” only testifies to Jesus’ view of the existing traditions and scriptures on the Hebrew Bible and not on the words he later recorded. Joh 5:19 indicates the complete dependence between son-god and father-god. Furthermore, the textual criticism and the different histories have shown that the words themselves cannot be carriers of divine impetus, since there are different readings and only (well-secured) probabilities to draw conclusions about the “original” (Allert 1999:86-88, 99-101). Allert, Craig D. 1999. Is a Translation Inspired? The Problems of Verbal Inspiration for Translation and a Proposed Solution, in Porter, Stanley E. & Hess, Richard S. (eds.): Translating the Bible: Problems and Prospects, 85-113. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press. Rather, it results from the practical relevance and everyday life of the Bible translation that those involved in a translation do not assume that they are transporting or even producing an inspired object or inspiration in any form. Nevertheless, the divine action is

in Scripture itself (Luke 4:21; 2 Timothy 3:16; John 10:35; 2Peter 1:20; Revelation 22:18-19), as well
in the form of visions / dreams (Acts 9:10 and 10:17; Mat 2:13, 19, 22), and
insisted in prayers (2Ki 20:5; Ps 39:13; Luke 6:12; Jak 5:15) and divine answer as well as prophecies and their assumed fulfilment (Mat 2:17; 4:14; Joh 12:38).
The way and the effect of this transcendent action are not described. In my opinion, a solution to this question arises in the effect of the text in the believer himself. Inspiration shifts to the effect and the effect that the text has on the recipient and which the latter permits. That the effect of the Holy Spirit predicted by Jesus of Nazareth forms the decisive moment is not anchored in the text, but in the encounter with transcendence (Joh 7:39; 15:26; 16:13).

The Hinduism (Upanishads, Vedas; see footnote. 63) adopted action and development “of the divine” in the interior of the recipient is in the Christian understanding of inspiration an argument against inspiration. This Hinduist principle and it effect is not inherent in the text, but works from the outside on believers. The “leadership” and “direction” of the Holy Spirit that is indicated in 1Tim 3:16 and 2Petr 1:20-21 by the authors of scripture shifted in this approach to the by divinity worked out decoding of the divine will in the recipient. The coexistence of the divine with the human activity shifts when translating to the self-responsible person. However, this applies to the translation of the Bible and cannot be generally applied to experiences of faith.

Subject of the effect-inspiration are the universal principles that have been transmitted by divinity in direct speech, parables, or narratives. Parallel to the “spirit of the law” (Torah; Deuteronomy 4:1; 5:1: 6:4; 28:15, 45). New Testament believers are expected to grasp the intentions of the biblical books (e.g. John 17:6; 1Thess 5:23; 2Thess 2:15; Rev 3:8, 10; 22:7). Jesus of Nazareth draws a parallel from the Hebrew Scriptures to his life (Joh 5:39) and thus opens the way for a hermeneutic of principles. This goes beyond the text and affects the whole person with his mind, his conscience, his emotions and feelings, as well as his character. In addition, there is the interpretation of the oral and written biblical traditions in the history of the church. Just as Jesus of Nazareth was at the same time whole man and whole God, the oral and written tradition at the same time represents a fully human as well as a completely divine revelation. The core contents are conveyed in the above-mentioned principles, which are also used in the Bible translations as one hundred percent human and at the same time divine.

The audience, as listeners and readers of Scripture, experience these principles “in the encounter with God”, in order to use a Christian formula. The traditional goods are converted into ethical standards. Such an ethic is not arbitrary, since the principles derived from the Scriptures must be justifiable with the Scriptures themselves. These standards are linguistically and culturally contextualized, which leads to different theologies worldwide, since different focal points are defined.71The black theology (Africa), the Liberation theology (South America), the harmony-theologies (Asia), space- and Zeit-theologien (Aboriginal and Native; Bevans, 2011:12-13; Stückelberger, 2011:9-10). Bevans, Stephen B. 2011. What Has Contextual Theology to Offer the Church of the Twenty-First Century?, in Bevans, Stephen B. & Tahaafe-Williams, Katalina (eds.): Contextual Theology for the Twenty-First Century. Missional Church, Public Theology, World Christianity, 3-17. Eugene: Pickwick. Stückelberger, Christoph 2011. Schöpfungstheologie – Schöpfungsspiritualität – Schöpfungsethik Impulse (aus dem globalen Süden) für eine globale und kontextuelle Ethik. Interdisziplinäres Fachgespräch zu ökologischer Ethik und Theologie, Heidelberg/FEST, 28./29. Sept 2011. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.christophstueckelberger.ch/dokumente_d/umweltethik_stand_ansa… [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2020-06-16]. Incidentally, hermeneutics has been following this path for some time. In some cases, the literal interpretation of the biblical texts is presented as the “only truth”. In the translation of the Bible, such mixing leads to adherence to literal translation.

Inspiration, understood from the perspective of a hermeneutics of principles, does justice to the historical process and the history of the reception of Holy Scripture in that it transmits the creative-dynamic moment of divine activity to the recipient and respects human intervention. This corresponds to the incarnatory translation principle, which brings up the contextualized message of Jesus of Nazareth and the early church (Acts; letters; revelation) again and up to date.

Homiletics and Evangelism

The communicative disciplines of theology and missiology include homiletics and evangelism. Like all communicative sciences (e.g. translation sciences, social sciences, literary studies), they have a mutual relationship to the language and culture in which they operate. They draw their connections from their linguistic-cultural environment, but at the same time they shape it by influencing its linguistic and cultural form. This became particularly clear at the beginning of the Reformation, but also during the colonial times (see footnote 61). This mutual influence can also be demonstrated in the current context of the Internet and media use.72Technological terms such as computer terms (e-mail, cache, stick, cell phone, etc.), curse terms (bitch, gay, fuck you), and political keywords (Glasnost, Perestroika, etc.) were recorded in the media and thus a cultural asset. Such terms are officially introduced into the German language material via the Duden. The Duden – German spelling – takes up terms as soon as they have been used consistently in several media.

A little-noticed area in the field of the science of Bible translation is the influence of homiletics and evangelism on Bible translation in its three-fold division as function, process and product. In these two disciplines, linguistic and cultural symbols develop around the Christian faith. At the same time, the homilist and evangelist takes up linguistic-cultural concepts of the environment in order to interpret them in and into Christian space. In other words, preachers and evangelists describe their interpretation of biblical content to a target audience and contextualize their preaching. Bible translation in turn takes up linguistic-cultural concepts from there. In addition, homilists and evangelists obtain language material from Bible translations for their work.

A revision of a Bible translation becomes necessary when biblical content is cultural-linguistically so far from the proclamation that homilists and evangelists can hardly use the linguistic corpus of the biblical texts. The range of interpretation plays an important role here. If the reader has to interpret the text too strongly, the cognitive effort becomes too high and a dependency on experts arises. Especially with sacred texts, a “clerical bracket” develops that closes the text to the public. This “clerical bracket” leads to the church’s own use of language, which is referred to as “Canaanite”.73It is often very subconscious linguistic changes that flow into the church property: discontinuations, blessings, exultation, good humor, I have peace over, testimony, … The linguistic discrepancy only becomes clear when we talk to people who are not from the church.

In the base biblical text we find parables, speeches and sermons that convey the principles of how people relate to and remain in the Judeo-Christian concept of God. The narration formats perform a linguistic-cultural contextualized package of these principles. The principles themselves are based on the metaphor of the Kingdom of God and are therefore generally applicable in the sphere of time and space. Based on the reality of the speeches and actions of Jesus of Nazareth, the oral traditions were fixed in writing in the Jewish-Greek context of the first century AD. Then translators transferred this reality into their contexts (Ulfila, Hieronymus, Methodius, etc.). Target group-oriented revisions and adaptations follow these translations until today. Through all contexts, times and translations, the intended principles of the incarnated Christ remain and protrude beyond any contextualization. For this reason, contextualization is spatially and temporally bound, but not so the intended biblical principles.

Language and culture only form the portfolio for translation. The intended hermeneutical principles of ethics and moral are behind the material text. The material text forms the linguistic-cultural framework in which the information is transported. If one follows this hermeneutics of principles, then it becomes clear that the signs and symbols of the biblical content are above the text. The Lord’s Supper (Mat 26: 19-30; Mark 14: 13-31; Joh 13), for example, conveys a generally valid symbol for the interpersonal and the human-divine community; the church names it “sacrament”. The “prodigal son” (Luke 15: 11-32), on the other hand, represents God’s desire to meet people and to seek God at the same time through people. The images in which these principles are packaged are not subject to a fixed communicative framework and can also be adapted linguistically and culturally, provided the original context is understood. The framework of such a contextualization is formed by

the historical context of the original text,
the cognitive-communicative framework of today’s target audience, as well as
the intuition of the meaning anchored in the base text.
When translating a so called “sacred” text, there are two things to be done: on the one hand, a recourse to the historical context, as well as a linguistic-cultural adaptation into the communicative context.

This is illustrated by an example in the German-speaking area. Older, as well as more literal philological translations use for the Hebrew term זֶ֔ר zera “seeds”„(e.g. Genesis 3:15; 70x Hebrew Bible), although the term also means “plant seeds, seeds, offspring or sperm” (e.g. in Onanism derived from Genesis 38:9). Over time, the term has now been translated into “offspring” in more recent translations and as “seed” in corresponding contexts of flora and fauna. With regard to human “seed”, the term conveys a sexual connotation and would be translated for example, in Genesis 38:9 first with “offspring” and then with “sperm”.

“So Onan knew that the offspring would not be his. Whenever he went to his brother’s wife, his sperm simply fall to the ground to keep his brother from descendants.”74Gerade dieses Beispiel kommuniziert nur minderwertig und beschreibt Vorgänge unzureichend. “Onan wusste sehr genau, dass es nicht seine Nachkommen wären. Sooft er nun mit der Frau seines Bruders schlief, ließ er es nicht zum Samenerguss kommen, um seinem Bruder keine Nachkommen zu schenken.“

A rethinking took place here in Bible translation. In homiletics and evangelism, the experience preceded that certain terms and word constructions carry connotations with them. These do not communicate in everyday language or outside of certain linguistic contexts or do so wrongly.

Another “clerical bracket” of homiletics and evangelism is the selection of texts themselves. Rarely used biblical texts, such as the brutal land grabbing stories from Joshua and Richter are subject to a contemporary interpretation. This is also reflected in the rendering of the texts, since the basic theological positions are connected.

In this sense, homiletics and evangelism form the long outstretched arm of Bible translation. In Christian development aid, this corresponds to the different approaches for contextualizing the message. Local friendships, national partnerships and a good knowledge of the language and culture of the target culture play a role. Here, the linguistic-cultural framework is internalized in order to offer the native-speaking Bible translators support in their training. Not only members of local churches, but also translators interested in Christianity can be trained in this way.

Summary – An Ethical Reflection on Bible Translation

 

The science of Bible translation is threefold: the product, process, and function of Bible translation. The essence of Bible translation discussed here affects all three areas. As a communicative science, Bible translation is closely intertwined with translation science, linguistics and the sciences for communication (information technology, literary studies, etc.). As a missiological-theological discipline, it makes use of anthropology, psychology, philosophy and the social sciences. Its interdisciplinarity enables contextualization into the language and culture area to be translated. Target group orientation is one of the most important characteristics of Bible translation.

A distinction must be made as to whether it is a so-called first Bible translation, a revision or a new translation. The former describes Bible translation for the area of Christian development aid. This task has a special focus opposed to revision translation, which refer to subsequent translations, where there is already a full Bible or larger parts of the Bible. The latter is also the foundation for New Bible translation that start a new literature tradition in an area where there is still a Bible translation. The “Century of Bible Translation” (19th-20th centuries) caused in the area of first translations to take on the creative and pioneering role in this discipline today. This means that translational and linguistic experiences and developments migrate outside the traditionally predominant Christian countries of Europe and North America.

Different theories and models for translation, as well as for the missiological-theological implementation and meaning of the Bible translation in the ecclesiastical space, require a plurality of approaches. The target group-oriented communicative method speaks against a philological-literal translation, which is supposed to guarantee a Bible translation that is very similar for all contexts. A language and culture group should always be able to refer back to the base text, but a transmission at the word level communicates insufficiently. This is at the expense of the audience, who need elaborate auxiliary materials to interpret the content of the text. A communicative translation of the Bible, on the other hand, is in danger of interpreting the “text” and in turn leading the audience to their own elaborate text interpretations. There is no escape from this dilemma in the history of translation. The functional theory of translation tries to put the product in the center by emphasizing the Skopos that is the objective of the translation. Target group orientation is achieved by the contractual partners of a translation agreeing on their objectives and framework conditions with a mutual agreement. As part of a recursive control mechanism, the process is checked again and again and corrected in the event of deviations. The focus is on intelligibility, compliance with the agreements and proximity to the intention of the original. The team of Bible translators has the opportunity to control the process.

The subsequent function of the translation of the Bible describes the internal process of contextualization as well as its preserving orientation. The oral tradition of the base text plays a role model for modern media format in the science of Bible translation. The dynamic history of the Hebrew Bible, as well as the New Testament, depicts today’s introduction to online Bibles, biblical oral-aural and visual products, as well as computer-simulated Bibles. Versions for the visually or hearing impaired in particular indicate the interpretative nature of the translation. In gestures and images, biblical content is interpreted and conveyed to the audience. It is this intuitive interpretation that depicts the cognitive basis of the human ability to transmit language and culture. The theological basis of the subsequent function of the Bible translation arises from the divine sending of the Church as guardian of the Scriptures. According to this mandate, the mother-tongue church preserves the biblical “text” and passes it on to future generations. The philological-literal or interlinearizing method of translation is usually used for this. In Christian development aid, this also applies to non-mother tongue contexts and especially for first translations. In this sense, the translation of the Bible strengthens the church and holds the global and local body of Christ together as a community. This “glocal” orientation leads to a number of Bible translations that can set different linguistic or content-related focal points, but in their entirety define the binding divine good of biblical concepts. Just as the oral traditions led to an open “canon” – since different canons – so native Bible translations of a language group also form a selection. The global Church draws the binding biblical good from the totality of canonical plurality. Yet, further comparison is allowed with the base text. The diverse text variants indicate different traditions and – as suggested in the text by Nestle Aland – can be traced back to a more definable consensus. The variety of translations becomes the basis for ecclesiastical exegesis, homiletics and evangelism in Bible translation.

The leading function of the science of Bible translation unfolds its progressive-dynamic power in the target group-oriented adaptation of biblical content. This is done in oral, written or media form. The background of this external contextualization is the Skopos, which is determined by those involved in a project of Bible translation. In this function, the translation of the Bible has its foundation in the church and thereby extends beyond its focus. It carries the biblical message into linguistic-cultural contexts, where it develops its own spiritual momentum in the context of Christian development aid. Groups that generate a Bible translation are consolidated with their own revision translations. The cycle of the leading and trailing function describes the history of the Bible translation itself, which reflects its own thread within the history of mankind and the Church.

These processes perform the foundation of ethical reflections by the incarnatory principle of Bible translation. These processes describe the time and place independent enculturation of the biblical message. Bible translation becomes a recurring act of contextualization into the idioms of this world, starting with the unique coming into the world of Christ in the person of Jesus of Nazareth at the turn of the age, The act of incarnation itself reflects this cycle in that divinity in Kenosis expresses herself in order to approach and reveal herself to his counterpart that is mankind. This condescension does not end with the resurrection, but is continued in the constant “translation” and further reaching of the biblical content in the most varied cultural-linguistic contexts. The foundation of such a dynamic and open incarnation principle can be described as a hermeneutic of principles. It communicates the implied principle of a biblical narrative, a parable, or poetic abstractions. It is not just a question of translating the spatial and time-bound context of the oral or written tradition into a native language idiom as true to the text as possible, let alone literally. Homiletics and evangelization form a pioneer in choosing communicative contents. This is so because of its target group oriented transport of Biblical contents into linguistic-cultural contexts.

Inspiration is negotiated differently throughout the theological realm. Just like the doctrine of the Trinity, this anthropocentric construct depicts spiritual reality, which, however, is viewed from a human perspective, so to speak. Assuming this limitation, there is a separate perspective in the Bible translation. The holy authorship as well as the divine content of the revelation make us aware of the translational-linguistic concern of the Bible translators. Bible translation projects are usually accompanied by prayer from the church. At the same time, as in incarnation, the Bible becomes the subject of human interpretation and intuition. A divine effect of the translation of the Bible unfolds only afterwards in the ecclesiastical space of the religious community. This shift away from the product towards the body and the understanding of the individual believer comes into play in the result- or effect inspiration. The currently prevailing sensible variety of today’s Bible translations in a mother tongue area serves different target groups. At the same time, the epistemological recognition of divine claims and statements from the “texts” is shifted to the individual and the collective. There is no material divine substance called “inspiration” attached to the product. The “texts” itself open up a divine message to believers individually. In contrast, the indwelling of divine substance is presupposed in verbal or dictation inspiration. However, this thesis assumes that an epistemological access to the divine would be possible. Ultimately, this access would only be possible via the original or the base text, the original form of which is outside the human sphere of influence. This understanding of inspiration can only be transferred to Bible translation in a narrower philological-literal context. Since a philological-literal Bible translation of the base text would be accessible in the mother tongue as a comparative text, as an interlinear text or in paratext, such a teaching of inspiration is also covered in the result- or effect inspiration.

Homiletics and evangelism transport biblical content into linguistic-cultural contexts. The framework for this transfer is the communicative purpose. Only what can be understood and implemented is communicated. This premise defines when a revision translation is necessary and what it should look like. The starting point is the current use of language as it is interpreted in sermon and preaching when applied to the audience. If a biblical text template no longer communicates in a target group, then one has to ask whether a further written text form a new Bible translation or a revision is necessary. Where no biblical content is yet accessible in a mother tongue, Christian development aid is required. New Bible translations should communicate today, but it must be ensured in the accompanying text (Paratext) that the original historical meaning remains understood.

At the end of this ethical reflection, one thing can be said: An ethical framework was only be sketched out here. It remains the task of future research to consider the following questions: What is the relationship and how do the elements presented here relate to a general Christian ethics? How is it enriched by the ethical requirements in Bible translation?

 

Towards an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consultation

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Werner, Eberhard 2012. Toward an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consulting. Journal of Translation (JOT) 8/1, 1-8. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Also Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548941/siljot2012-1-01.pdf [PDF] [accessed 2015-01-02].

Eberhard Werner

Content

1. Introduction – Difficulties caused by Lack of Ethical Standards. 1

1.1 Regular Problems faced in Consulting Translation Projects. 3

1.2 Ethical Standards in Linguistics and Translation. 3

2. Towards Ethical Standards. 4

2.1 Inner Aspects and their Influence on Ethics. 4

2.2 Outer Aspects and their Influence on Ethics. 5

2.3 Loyality as an Ethical Benchmark. 5

3. Proposal towards Ethical Standards in Bible Translation Consulting. 6

3. Summay. 7

References. 8

 

Abstract

One of the great unknowns in Bible Translation consultation is still the question of the ethical foundation for a consultant. This covers consultants in anthropology, linguistics and translation. The same goes for ethical standards in Bible Translation projects and for the parties involved. To whom are they responsible? Is it to the initiating institution or organization, to the individuals or a people group’s conscience, to God, to the translation team or to the translation project? Another question is how do all parties know about their ethics? And at least how do the parties involved handle ethical considerations, such as disagreement, mutual aversion, rejection or cross-cultural differences? Because there is a blank space in this area, consultants and other parties involved often experience a lot of misunderstanding, distrust and thus the quality of the Bible Translation or the consulted product is at risk. This has to do with cross-cultural subjects, diverging expectations about translation issues, vague job descriptions and understanding, lack of frameworks and planning etc. To address some of the difficulties that Bible Translation projects face, and how this could be overcome by some general ethical statement for consultants, will be discussed. The term “loyalty” from functional translation approaches will be introduced to consultation in Bible Translation.

1. Introduction – Difficulties caused by Lack of Ethical Standards

The subject of this article is about the consultation process in Bible Translation projects. Those projects cover Bible Translations, as well as other language development products, such as grammars, lexicons, and folk tales books that are consulted. Recently Consultation and consultants are focusing on the areas of translation, linguistics, anthropology, missiology, theology and social sciences. This wide range of involved disciplines comes from the interdisciplinary approach of Bible Translation. In most projects one will find only the first three areas covered which are recently addressed as the most central ones. However this does not mean that the other areas are less important, but it is suggested that they go “somehow” with the translators or the consultants work, although those could also be improved by consultation.

Ethics is not a static issue given to all people in the same way. Ethics is culture bound and reflected in behaviour, language and customs and traditions. Thus ethical standards are defined by either a people group as their acculturated property or within an individual project based on agreement.

Consulting is an etic – that is from the outside – approach. An experienced professional in the above mentioned areas comes in and supports the translation team and the project management about the checking and improvement of a translated Bible text. In best case, and recently preferred, the consultant supervises the translation project from the beginning by giving his translational, anthropological, linguistical or social advice. The goal of consulting is to guarantee high quality products.

Unsolved problems in consulting are:

  • the power flow and the question of responsibility,
  • how to improve “quality” in translation by the involved parties,
  • the handling and resolution of personal and or work related differences, disagreements or aversions.

Starting a Bible Translation project does involve different parties. There is the project manager(s) (management), who invited and trained the team or take responsibility for the funds, the planning and the process of the project. Then there is the national or mother tongue translation team, which works together with churches, exegetes or theologians of the people group. More on the periphery of such a project stands the funding institution, the wider community of the group for whom the Bible Translation is and local or national organizations interested in language or translation issues. But often key persons like consultants are not considered to be part of the project. They come in temporarily and because of a lack of preparation and training about the role of consultants in the process of Bible Translation projects, the translators and their managers regard them as intruders who cause additional work. This additional potential of disharmony is worsening the process as consultants are expected to give final approval to the products. This recent state of consulting has to do with the fact that a product is close to finishing and consultation checking is just one of the very last steps. Best practice would incorporate the consultant as soon as possible in a translation project. The best moment is right after the formation of a translation team. The planning of the translation progress in the foundational project plan will then be set up to include the consultants, the project manager, the funding institutions, the translation team and possible other parties. This functional translation principle (Nord 2003) would give all parties a say and the opportunity to work towards a common Skopos which is formulated in the plan. The project plan includes different breakpoints at which the whole assignment is evaluated, based on the progress and the targets reached. These evaluations leave room to corrections and bring about sustainable corrections or realignment (principle of reciprocal feedback mechanism). Translation and project quality assessment is thus possible (ibid.; Reiss 1971).

One of the tasks of such planning will be the evaluation of ethical standards in the translation project. Ethical standards refer to the ethical foundation of:

  • the translation team the consultants
  • the translation project management
  • the funding institutions or organizations
  • other involved parties.

Why does this represent an essential part of planning? Some generalized experiences from the work on the field will demonstrate the need.

1.1 Regular Problems faced in Consulting Translation Projects

This overview intimates just a few difficulties that are experienced during consultation in Bible Translation projects either from consultants or consulted parties.

A Bible Translation project is normally initiated by a very small group of people or a single person. She or they are gathering a group of interested parties. All of them have a high interest in the cultural and linguistic setting of the people group to whom the Bible Translation as a product is addressed (view from inside – emic). So besides the pure translation activity all parties show, more or less, a personal interest in doing Bible Translation as a means to this specific people group’s Language Development. Also the motivation to do a Bible Translation project is based on a high value of Christian Development Aid. Thus the socio-economic situation of a people group or microculture acts as a trigger to the project. The consultant on the other side comes from outside (view from outside – etic), he/she does not know the specifics of the people group and he/she has worked and works on other projects too. His/her vision is mainly on the academic translation issues, such as translation style, accuracy, text fidelity to the biblical base texts and issues of formatting and publication. The responsibility is often towards an academic department or institution. Yet his academic reputation and his stance in his organizations have a high value for him and therefore a high influence on his decisions. At least four areas of conflict are bound to occur:

The question of final approval or final responsibility in a Bible Translation project?
How do parties interact with each other when there is no common mind or mediating institution in the project?
Is there the option for the parties involved to leave or align without losing face, which is easily the case in shame oriented cultures?
Who will approve the stages of a Bible Translation project plan and who will manage its improvement, in a case where alignments are necessary?
In general those four areas are traced to the ethical foundations of a Bible Translation project and its participants.

1.2 Ethical Standards in Linguistics and Translation

Consultants, translators, and linguists are not left without any advice about ethical standards in their disciplines. The American Anthropological Association in their Code of Ethics (1998) laid out essential principles of responsibility for academic professionals (see Spradley 1980:21 for ethnography). This focus on responsibility will be followed up in this article. In the francophone area the Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs produced similar standards. Chesterman introduces a Hieronymic Oath for translators. He follows the Hippocratic Oath of medics by referring to the patron of translators Jerome or Hieronymus. I will later give similar guidelines for consultants leaning in the same way towards common ethical standards. There is no global institution that is in control of such ethical standards. This is why they mainly speak out to the conscience of professionals. These statements are made to be followed by national organizations. Although such statements do not reveal new ethical concepts, they do offer guidelines for a general agreement of involved parties.

Besides such general statements every discipline refers to moral principles that are acculturated and follow inner-scientific structures. Yet natural sciences follow the ethics of the Greek philosophers or pedagogy ethics from Christianity or sects deduced thereof. So to who is a consultant ethically responsible? In Bible Translation it is assumed that a translator follows Christian ethics, and the same goes for the consultant. But what if the translator is either a non-religious professional or from a different religious background?

With the recent fragmentation of Bible Translation approaches, caused by postmodernism, a homogenous unit’s orientation, and the general tendency towards individualism, produces a variety of interests in consulting and translation efforts. Nowadays a Bible Translation is not expected to be done (only) by Christians. People with a high value of linguistics, translation or anthropology and low interest in theology or Christian sciences do translations also. What will the common ethical base for a Bible Translation project then be?

2. Towards Ethical Standards

Approaching ethical standards asks for a differentiation of inner and outer aspects of a Bible Translation project. Inner aspects are those that form the foundation of the project. Outer aspects will be more on the surface level but they are also important.

2.1 Inner Aspects and their Influence on Ethics

Foundational to a Bible Translation project is the attitude towards the subject: Bible Translation. How do the involved parties relate to the content of the Christian message? The ethical stance hereby relates to the inner attitude. No matter how, the subject needs to be addressed on a basis of high motivation, since the task is a huge and long enduring translation project. The consultant’s motivation comes from a different level as he is interested in the quality of the product. If this clash of attitudes is not countered by an in-depth project plan for the shared task, then it will cause conflicts. This happens if, for instance, the consultant follows a literal approach towards text fidelity but the translators are focusing on dynamic equivalence or free or communicative translation principles. Both motivations can seldom be yielded or combined and at the end the question of authority or power play controls the proceeding. The understanding and mutual agreement on translation principles, technical issues and the process of translation and checking is essential towards a firm ethical foundation.

Another inner aspect is the interaction of the translation process and the checking procedure of the consultant. Sometimes the consultant expects immediate corrections and implementation of his suggestions, having in mind to improve the translation quality. Contrary to this attitude the translation team expects only minor changes. General alignments are only expected from the project manager and not from the consultant. At the end another power play between consultant and other parties is launched.

One of the big inner aspects concerns “time”. Different worldviews or perceptions of time management about the individuals work load, the duration of translation projects, and the time frames for checking are leading to unreachable expectations.

2.2 Outer Aspects and their Influence on Ethics

Outer aspects in Bible Translation projects are performed by parties such as funders, close project partners, the consultant’s organization and other involved institutions. The consultant belongs to an academic department to which he is responsible. Responsibility lies in his/her and the department’s reputation to the outward. Also the departments are a part of a wider set of academic departments that somehow work together and stay in competition with each other. Often this becomes perceivable when departments of different organizations, like SIL, UBS, universities or institutes compete with each other. The pressure is on the consultant to present his work with as much quality as possible for his reputation. Such an attitude causes conflicts with the lay translators and their understanding of the production of Christian literature or tools to present the message of the Christian god to their people group. A common suspicious about the academic influence or a general understanding of the Bible translation task as a lay work supported by the Holy Spirit leads to additional tensions.

Another outer aspect goes with funds and funding. The consultant has either an independent budget from his department or he is funded within the Bible Translation project. The former setting guarantees the consultant more independence but also less participation. The latter is an idealized setting and it would include him in the planning process and the project as a whole. Still his motivation would be at some points different from the translator’s task (see above).

In general it should become clear up to this point that a common agreement about power play, authority issues, translation principles and the timeframe of translating and consulting should be agreed on with a dynamic and flexible plan that offers opportunities for alignment and reciprocal feedback mechanisms.

2.3 Loyality as an Ethical Benchmark

Loyalty coined by translation theory (Chesterman 2001:140) was reviewed in functional translation approaches. There it became one position of ethical standard for conflict prevention, the climate of confidence, professionalism and veracity (Nord 2004:236). These principles that apply for the translator are also relevant for the consultant in Bible Translation.

The goal is to avoid any miscommunication or tension caused by his/her work (conflict prevention). In some cases he/she even functions as a sort of mediator or counsellor between the translation team, the team and the manager(s) or parties even further apart. Conflict caused by consulting needs to be mediated through persons from outside (see Nr. 3: 6-7).

A consultant works in and provides a climate of confidence to all parties. Therefore he/ she has to state explicitly any academic expectation, the standards (translation principles, theology and exegetical position) and has to be flexible to adapt those to the Bible project’s needs. For instance if the consultant thinks about working on a literal translation out of the base text and the translation team works towards a contextualized and communicative translation a compromise has to be found before both parties work together.

On the level of professionalism the parties involved state what they expect. The education of the translators, the academic standards and the target audience play an essential part in this. He and the team are striving for excellence by improving their translation task during the whole production process.

And lastly the consultant has to be in favour of full disclosure to give the other parties enough freedom for feedback and bilateral alignment for the good of the Bible translation. The consultant’s veracity has to be proofed by word and deed.

Loyalty is directed towards the product, the parties involved and the task of consulting. This means that a consultant does not always have to please those involved, but sometimes needs to refer to his professionalism and smoothly introduces those parties to new concepts or ideas. For instance in the case of a religiously contextualized translation there may be principles of adaptation that move away from some language in the base text: here the consultant as the professional can introduce the new concepts but it will be up to the mother tongue translation team to decide how far they would go and which terms to use.

We will now consider a proposal towards an ethical statement about consulting in Bible Translation.

3. Proposal towards Ethical Standards in Bible Translation Consulting

An ethical standard for a consultant includes the issues of authority, responsibility, and the interplay of the parties involved.

As an ethical imperative “loyalty” incorporates conflict prevention, a climate of confidence, professionalism and veracity.
Consulting performs a mixture of support and advice to a Bible Translation project.The consultant is responsible for supporting the translation team towards their goal of producing a high quality translation (see Nr. 8).
At the same time he/she takes a stance as advisor under the supervision of his institution or department. In undefined authority circumstances the last say or final decision should go with the mother tongue translators and the central figures from within the people group. Any colonialist approach has to be avoided by giving full authority and responsibility to mother tongue translators.
All involved parties follow a functional approach by setting up a project plan. This project plan includes:The Skopos of the translation, that is for whom, what, when and how will the translation be done (Lasswell 1971).
The responsibilities and authority of:

The translator team and the project managers,
The consultant(s), his role and final agreement,
The organizations and institutions that are funding, organizing, supervising or connecting the project to others.
The time frame regarding the  expectations of all parties with regard to time in relation to a mutual response system,
The lines of communication between the parties and the mediator’s role in case of miscommunication or disharmony.
The consultant’s organization and other involved institutions are responsible as stakeholders to support the translation project to their best. They avoid any direct intervention, but work through the translation project management. They are responsible to introduce and promote the task of consulting and the pool of consulting services to the person in authority on the field. Consultants proactively promote their services to potential translation projects, and will be sensitive to investigate whether they fit in the given team setting (personality, interest in this people group, workload).
The best quality product will be achieved through a close interaction of the consultant(s), the mother tongue translators and the translation management. Ideally all of them agree to a clear allocation of power, responsibility and authority.
In cases where there is no initial consensus a neutral mediator from outside is taken into account. Such a mediator is focusing on the needs of the translation project and the central figures such as the translators and the translation project manager(s).
The consultant works towards full consensus and should avoid any confrontation based on translation principles, cultural- or linguistic- understanding (consultant’s ethnocentrism) or temperamental differences. A mediator will be employed to intervene in case of dissent.
High quality translation products are the result of qualified and academic work. The consultant as a professional is responsible for avoiding any arrogance. He/she will present his work in a fully communicative way on a language level that suits the translators and the translation projects management. He/she supports the translation project by a serving attitude (but see Nr. 2)
Consulting is always directed towards multiplication. The role of a consultant develops the more experience one gains. For this reason he is an ongoing learner and a trainer to new trainees. The position so to say takes the motto, “to work yourself out of a job”. Every consultant job thus includes a temporary orientation towards learning that lasts and training others.

3. Summay

During this paper it became obvious that consulting in Bible Translation has to do with power play. The consultant comes as an outsider into a project. Often the translation work in a project has already started and the consultant joins for checking sessions. So the experience and knowledge is not needed for the project itself. Recently the concept changed due to this shortcoming to include consultant’s right from the beginning of a project. In either case the process of asking for a “backtranslation” as well as the role of a consultant in itself causes additional work load which is sometimes not viewed positively by the translation team.

All these circumstances ask for an ethical foundation of consulting in Bible Translation. It will not be enough to follow Christian ethics and morals to face the specific problems of a Translation project. The specific task of this work needs to be reflected by the ethical standards that all parties need to agree on. Looking at some of the difficulties in Bible translation projects I came up with an ethical code for consultants in relation to their organization or institution, the Bible translation team and its management and other parties involved. The code mirrors the questions of loyalty, which is echoed in the ethical imperative of a standard about conflict prevention, a climate of confidence, professionalism and veracity.

Concerning the authority and responsibility that goes with consultation we should note that in an epoch of postmodernism, postcolonialism and globalization the mother tongue translation team owns the final authority. The consultant has to be considered a supporter to the project. He has an advisory role, with some authority to generate new developments or alternative ideas about translation style, exegetical considerations or linguistic and anthropological insights. However he does not hold the responsibility for the project. In consequence to avert misunderstanding or conflict about the time frame, exegetical, translational, linguistic or anthropological or personal or cross-cultural differences, two things are necessary.

An in-depth project plan for the whole Bible Translation setting, including the authority and responsibility of all involved parties. The plan is set up in consensus and in the beginning phase of the project. The plan is flexible and introduces a reciprocal feedback mechanism which supports the ongoing improvement of the translation process.
A neutral or outside mediating institution or person which is supervising the program and the plan, and which holds the authority to intervene in conflict situations.
Other areas of responsibility that go with consulting are improvement in experience by ongoing learning and multiplication of knowledge and experience to trainees.

It is my hope that institutions and organizations which deal with consulting in Bible Translation and Language Development are becoming aware of the variety of difficulties that go with Bible Translation projects. They are often caused by a lack of ethical standards that consultants and the other parties involved in a project face. To avoid such tensions these institutions need to train their consultants in an ethical code and involve them as soon as possible in a translation project.

References

American Anthropological Association. 1998. Code of Ethics of the American Anthro­po­logical Association. American Anthropological Association Statement on Ethno­graphy and Institutional Review Boards. Airlington. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm also http://www.­aaanet.­org/­committees/ethics/ethicscode.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2011-04-29].

Chesterman, Andrew. 2001. Proposal for a Hieronymic Oath, in Pym, Anthony (ed.): The Translator: Studies in intercultural communication Vol. 7/2, 139-154. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Nord, Christiane. [1997] 2001. Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functionalist Approaches Ex­plain­ed. Reprint. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Nord, Christiane 2004. Loyalität als ethisches Verhalten im Translationsprozess, in Müller, Ina (Hg.): Und sie bewegt sich doch … Tanslationswissenschaft in Ost und in West, Fest­schrift für Heidemarie Salevsky zum 60. Geburtstag, 234-245. Frankfurt/M.: Peter Lang. [engl.: Nord, Christiane 2004. Loyality as Ethical Behaviour in the Translational Process, in Müller, Ina (ed.): But it does move … Tanslation Science in East and into the West, Celebration Document for Heidemarie Salevsky for the 60th Birthday, 234-245. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.].

Lasswell, Harold D. 1971. The Structure and Function of Communication in Society, in Schramm, Wilbur & Roberts, Donald F. (eds.): The Process and Effects of Mass Communi­cation 84. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Reiss, Katharina. 1971. Möglichkeiten und Kriterien der Übersetzungskritik: Kategorien und Kriterien für eine sachgerechte Beurteilung von Übersetzungen. München: Max Hueber. [engl. Opportunities and Criteria in Translation Assessment: Categories and Criteria about sound Evaluation of Translations. Munich: Max Hueber.].

Spradley, James P. 1980. Participant Observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Ethics in Anthropology or Anthropology of Morals?!

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Eberhard Werner

In one anthropology meeting the issue of “Morals and Ethics in Anthropology” as opposed to “Anthropology of Ethics and Morals” (Caduff 2011:456) came into focus. The latter is concerned with the study of morals and ethics in societies. “Moral anthropology” (Fassin 2008:333) is concerned with the basics of evil and good. The close link to religious concepts is obvious and of interest for Bible Translation. Moral anthropology concerns how societies “ideologically and emotionally found their cultural distinction between good and evil, and how social agents concretely work out this separation in their everyday life” (ibid.; Fassin & Stoczkowski 2008:331). The ideological point of view that a researcher takes is central regarding these topics. Our goal was not to come up with a solution, but to increase our understanding of these important anthropological issues.

In general, ethics in research, and “Morals and Ethics in Anthropology,” deal with loyalty, integrity, fairness, trust and respect towards the parties involved. These prerequisites focus especially on ethics with regard to those individuals or groups that the anthropologist is working with. But they also reflect reciprocity. Only if they frame the ethical borders of the relationship can all parties expect trust and respect.

The general ethical framework of science follows not just international ethical standards of research, but also discipline-specific recommendations (e.g. AAA ethical statements 2012). However, specifically in ethnography, one has to be aware of intended or unintended manipulation of data, including change, omission, withholding, overlooking, duplex or salami publication (breaking up one publication into small pieces), as well as unwarranted authorship. Such scientific misconduct goes under the label “data-cooking”. Human sciences, in contrast to natural sciences, face even greater danger, as subjectivity based on matters of intuition and interpretation is less manageable. Controlling it lacks a practicable instrument. In response to this awareness the American Anthropology Association (AAA 2012) points to their general ethical principles:

1. Do No Harm

2. Be Open and Honest Regarding Your Work

3. Obtain Informed Consent and Necessary Permissions

4. Weigh Competing Ethical Obligations, Due Collaborators and Affected Parties

5. Make Your Results Accessible

6. Protect and Preserve Your Records

7. Maintain Respectful and Ethical Professional Relationships.

In translation science, a similar approach can be found in Chesterman’s Hieronymic Oath, which follows the Hippocratic Oath for physicians (2001); also the Fédération Internationale des Traducteurs with           similar standards (visit www.fit-ift.org).

Anthropology is not at all free from misconduct. On the contrary, it has experienced prominent ethical fallacies in the past, which raised a lot of criticism. Lack of language capability, the use of third-party information and a superior attitude towards the investigated people group(s) led to subjective and sometimes manipulated data and thus misleading conclusions. Consequently, not just the people groups which were described felt misunderstood, but also the audience were misled (e.g. Freeman 1983 and 1998). As a sidetrack, Christian Anthropology faces the ethical accusation of the destruction of a culture or society, as well as religiously motivated Imperialism leading to an unhealthy dependency of the approached on the religious institution (Holzhausen 1996). (Christian) Anthropologists learnt from the past. Recent ethnography and anthropological research better take into account ethnocentrism, culture and language change and adaptation, subjectivity on behalf of the investigator, and the reality of relativisms (Bagish 2013).

Anthropological theory plays a huge role with regard to ethical principles in anthropology. Spradley introduced some ethical standards to ethnography as participant observation (1980:21), and refers also to the AAA principles. Rynkiewich & Spradley (1976) look at ethics from a Christian point of view. Wax (1987) and McGee & Warms (2004) cover ethics from a secular viewpoint in their Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. Every epoch, as well as every theory, brings forth specific ethical orientations. In the Middle Ages the theocentric view of the Clergy dominated social sciences and their interpretation. Ethics was transfigured by human interpretation of the divine (note this is an observation seen from an enlightened retrospective). Religions powered ethical bias by their hermeneutics. The emerging anthropological attitudes started back in the 19th century, influenced by humanism, enlightenment and evolutionary theory. Ethics was reflected in these ideologies and framed by Zeitgeist (spirit of the time) and philosophical interpretation. Looking back into young anthropology and structuralism, ethics was understood as a relationship between the ethnographer and his work. The researcher decided what was within the ethical framework. The audience of ethnography and the ethnographer were dominant in setting the stage. The object of research was viewed from outside. Comparative studies brought the “foreign” and “other” to the table of dissection. With functional structuralism not just the audience but also the objects of investigation were understood to be parties that need to have a say. However, the “foreign” and “other” was still looked at from a distance. As in structuralism the researcher took part in the worlds of life of the investigated people. Additionally, in functionalism researchers looked at social functions and their cohesive features. Their own social setting became less important. Nowadays ethics is a mutual concept regarding all parties. Obviously, in the AAA ethical principles, the researcher, the research, the audience, and the parties involved in research need to be in agreement with the anthropological work. Such a mutual agreement does not mean that critical and sometimes diverging opinions are banned, but it asks for trust and loyalty between the parties. To accomplish a fair and loyal research the researcher reflects the “foreign” and “other” with emic (inside) and etic (outside) tools. Thus, the researcher as “foreigner” deconstructs his own worlds of life and re-constructs the realm of profound encounter. Yet, the former foreignness disperses into a dyadic relationship of reciprocity.

One note should be made on fieldwork. Participant observation has been the main approach since the 1980s. As ever, questions were raised, whether the object of study, that is “culture”, can neither be assumed as a given social structure, nor compared to other cultures. Cultural relativism asks for participation as observer (Spradley 1980), listener (Forsey 2010) and deconstructuralist (Derrida 1967:25). Participant observation led the ethnographer to annotate the received data based on his perception of the world (Spradley 1980:10, 14, 21). Engaged participant listening tries to go one step deeper by presenting the data from the perspective of the “other” (Forsey 2010:586-587). In deconstructuralism one deconstructs the cultural bonds between the object and himself, by creating (re-constructing) an area of investigation in which all parties are equal (Carrithers 1992:55, 82). Social, cultural, linguistic and ideological boundaries vanish due to the observation that “foreignness” is part of intercultural encounter (e.g. Werner 1996). This idealist approach is also reflected in other sciences. For instance theology and missiology started with an epoch of accommodation, and moved into contextualization. Recently transformative approaches are moving into what can be called implementation. All of these approaches reflect ethics in a zeitgeisty manner.

The huge area of “ethics and morals in anthropology” and “the moral anthropology” cannot be evaluated conclusively within such a small article. But, I hope to have raised awareness about our responsibility towards scientific research, the audience, and the people we work with. Truthfulness and loyalty are the outstanding principles regarding ethics.

 

Further discussion is warmly welcomed. Write to: werner [at] forschungsinstitut.net

American Anthropological Association 2012. Statement on Ethics. Principles of Professional Responsibility. AAA Ethics Blog. Online. URL:http://ethics.aaanet.org/category/statement/ [accessed 2014-03-20].

Bagish, Henry H. 2013. Cultural Relativist: Confessions of a Former Cultural Relativist. Habibi Publications. Online: URL: http:/­/thebestofhabibi.com/tableofcontents/Cultural%20Relativist%20_%20The%20Best%20of%20Habibi%20(2).htm [accessed 2014-03-30].

Caduff, Carlo 2011. Anthropology’s ethics: Moral positionalism, cultural relativism, and critical analysis. Anthropological Theory 11/4,465-480. Also Online: URL: http://ant.sagepub.com/content/11/4/465 [accessed 2014-03-30].

Chesterman, Andrew. 2001. Proposal for a Hieronymic oath. In Anthony Pym (ed.): The Translator: Studies in Intercultural Communication 7/2,139–154. Manchester: St. Jerome.

Derrida, Jacques 1967. Of Grammatology. Paris: Les Éditions de Minuit. Term “Deconstruction” on p. 25. Dekonstrukturalismus. Deconstructuralism. Constructuralism.

Fassin, Didier 2008. Beyond good and evil?: Questioning the anthropological discomfort with morals. Anthropological Theory 8/4, 333–344. London: Sage. Online: URL: http://ant.sagepub.com/content/8/4/333.full.pdf+html [accessed 2014-03-20].

Fassin, Didier & Stoczkowski, Wiktor 2008. Should anthropology be moral? A debate. Anthropological Theory 8/4, 331-332. London: Sage. Also Online: URL: http://ant.sagepub.com/content/8/4/331.citation [accessed 2014-03-30].

Fluehr-Lobban, Carolyn 2009. Guiding Principles over Enforceable Standards. Anthropology News 50/6, 8–9.

Forsey, Martin Gerard 2010. Ethnography as participant listening. Ethnography 11, 558-572. London: Sage. Online: http://eth.sagepub.com/content/11/4/558.full.pdf+html [PDF-File] [accessed 2014-03-12].

Freeman, Derek 1983. Margaret Mead and Samoa: The Making and Unmaking of an Anthropological Myth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.

Freeman, Derek 1998. The Fateful Hoaxing of Margaret Mead: A Historical Analysis of Her Samoan Research. Boulder: Westview Press.

Holzhausen, Andreas (ed.) 1996. Mission unter Beschuss: Missionspraktiker antworten auf prak­tische Fragen. Neuhausen: Hänssler. [Engl.: Mission under attack: Mission practitioners answer on practical question.].

Levy, Janet E. 2009. Life is Full of Hard Choices: A Grievance Procedure for the AAA? Anthropology News 50/ 6, 7–8. Washington: American Anthropological Association.

McGee, R. Jon & Warms, Richard L. 2004. Anthropological Theory: An Introductory History. 3rd ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Robbins, Joel 2012. On becoming ethical subjects: freedom, constraint, and the anthropology of morality. Anthropology of this Century 5. Online: URL: http://aotcpress.com/articles/ethical-subjects-freedom-constraint-anthro… [accessed 2014-01-25].

Rynkiewich, Michael A. & Spradley, James P. (eds.) 1976. Ethics and Anthropology: Dilemmas in Fieldwork. New York: John Wiley.

Spradley, James P. 1980. Participant observation. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Wax, Murray L. 1987. Some Issues and Sources on Ethics in Anthropology, in Cassell, Joan & Jacobs, Sue-Ellen (eds.): Handbook on Ethical Issues in Anthropology, Special Publication of the American Anthropological Association 23. Washington: American Anthropological Association.

Werner, Oswald 1998. Short Take 24: Do We Need Standards for Ethnography? Field Methods 10/1, 1-3. London: Sage. Online: URL: http://fmx.sagepub.com/content/10/1/1.refs.html [accessed 2014-03-20].

Reference List Bible Translation – Science of Translation

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Reference List Bible Translation – Science of Translation

Eberhard Werner, Institut für evangelische Missiologie, Gießen. werner@forschungsstiftung.net

Overview

German Bible Translations. 149

International Bibels and Base Texts. 153

Scandinavian Bibles (Denmark, Norway Sweden, FIN, Island) 155

1.        Denmark. 155

2.        Finnland. 156

3. Island. 156

4. Norway. 157

5. Sweden. 158

Turkish Bibles 160

Computertools Bible exegesis. 162

Computertools Bible translation – translation linguistics. 163

Internet. 165

Personal Communication. 176

Exegetical Tools (Bible translation)178

Exegetical Tools (Tranbslation/ Commentary) 184

Nidas Works (partially in cooperation) 192

Bibliography on Eugene A. Nida (partially in cooperation to others) 197

Notes. 197

 

ABD 1992. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Freedman, David Noel. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Abrams, Judith Z. 1998. Judaism and Disability: Portrayals in Ancient Texts from the Tanach through the Bavli. Washington: Gallaudet.

Abu-Saad, Ismael 1998. Individualism and Islamit Work Beliefs. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psy­cho­logy 29, Nr. 2: 377-383.

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Comerd, Munzır 1996. Yitiqatê Dersımi de Wayırê Çêi (Asparê astorê kimenti): Sarê Çêi xıravunu ra ‘be neweşiye ra sevekneno, karê dine raşt beno rızqê çêi dano, malê çêi ‘be qısmetê çêi keno jêde, nasivê çêi sevekneno. [Turkish S. 69-74: Dersim İnancı’nda Ev ve Aile Tanrısı (Wayırê Çêi): Ev halkını her tür kötülükten, kötü melklerden ve hastalıklardan koruyor, İşlerinin İye gitmesini sağlıyor, evin rızkını veriyor, malını ve kısmetini artırıyor, nasibini koruyour.]. Ware 9, 10-14. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about the Master of the House. Home to all kinds of people from evil, bad influences and diseases, protecting, providing their work to go well, giving the house increasing property and fortune, but has to be feared.].

Comerd, Munzır 1996. Yitiqatê Dersımi de Wayırê Çêi (Asparê astorê kimenti): Sarê Çêi xıravunu ra ‘be neweşiye ra sevekneno, karê dine raşt beno rızqê çêi dano, malê çêi ‘be qısmetê çêi keno jêde, nasivê çêi sevekneno. [Turkish S. 69-74: Dersim İnancı’nda Ev ve Aile Tanrısı (Wayırê Çêi): Ev halkını her tür kötülükten, kötü melklerden ve hastalıklardan koruyor, İşlerinin İye gitmesini sağlıyor, evin rızkını veriyor, malını ve kısmetini artırıyor, nasibini koruyour.]. Ware 9, 10-14. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Der Glaube Dersims über den “Herrn des Hauses”. Der bei allen Menschen wohnt und vor bösen und schlechten Einflüssen und Krankheiten beschützt und dafür sorgt das die Arbeit gut geht, und dem Haus Wohlstand und Glück bringt, aber gefürchtet ist.].

Comerd, Munzır 1996. Yitiqatê Dersımi de Wayırê Mali: Sarık Şüan xêro, Memık Gavan Xıravıno. Wayırê Malê Yavani ki sultan Duzgıno. Serva Duzgıni Dersimıci Malê yavani nekisenê, dersim de “Avci” çino! [Turkish S. 128-140: Dersim İnancı’nda Hayanlar Tanrısı (koyun, keçi, inek vb. küçük – ve büyükbaş hayvanlar): Sarık Şüan iyi, Memık Gavan kötü Tanrıdır. Sultan Duzgın da Dağkeçisi, geyik vb. Haynaların Tanrısidır. Dersimli’ler Duzgın’dan Dolayı Bunları Avlamazlar, Dersim’de Avcı Yoktur!]. Ware 10, 4-16. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about the Master of the Cattle: The Good shepherd (sheep, goats, cows, smaller ones and cattle and so on, the bad Memık Gavan.): The yellow good Shepherd, bad Meme Gavan God. Sultan Duzgın of Dersim. Due to Duzgın’dan Dersimli’ler hunt them, Dersim Hunter None!].].

Comerd, Munzır 1996. Yitiqatê Dersımi de Wayırê Mali: Sarık Şüan xêro, Memık Gavan Xıravıno. Wayırê Malê Yavani ki Sultan Duzgıno. Serva Duzgıni Dersimıci Malê yavani nekisenê, dersim de “Avci” çino! [Turkish S. 128-140: Dersim İnancı’nda Hayanlar Tanrısı (koyun, keçi, inek vb. küçük – ve büyükbaş hayvanlar): Sarık Şüan iyi, Memık Gavan kötü Tanrıdır. Sultan Duzgın da Dağkeçisi, geyik vb. Haynaların Tanrısidır. Dersimli’ler Duzgın’dan Dolayı Bunları Avlamazlar, Dersim’de Avcı Yoktur!]. Ware 10, 4-16. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Der Glaube Dersims über den “Herrn der Nutztiere”: Der gute Hirte, der böse Memık Gavan.].

Comerd, Munzır 1997. Yitiqatī Dêrsımi de Duzgin (Asparê astorê kimenti): Wayır u sıtarê dina u darewo! Sultan u Qumandanê Dêrsimi ‘be pilê jiar u diarunê Dêrsimi Duzgıno. Duzgın roştiya, evdıl Musa tariyo!. Vervê Eskerê Evdıl Musay de eskerê Duzgıni vındeno [Turkish S. 84-103: Dersim İnancı’nda Duzgın (Doruat’in süvarisi): Can ile Cihann Tanrısı, Rehberi ve Himayesidir! Dersim’in Sultanı ve Kumandanı Duzgın’dır. Ayrıca Dersim’deki Kutsal Yer ve Yatırların da Başıdır. Duzgın Aydınlığı Simgeliyor, Evdıl Musa’ysa Karanlığı! Evdıl Musa’nin Askerleri’ne Karşı, Duzgın’ın Askerleri’ne Duruyor.]. Ware 11, 15-31. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about Duzgin.].

Comerd, Munzır 1997. Yitiqatī Dêrsımi de Duzgin (Asparê astorê kimenti): Wayır u sıtarê dina u darewo! Sultan u Qumandanê Dêrsimi ‘be pilê jiar u diarunê Dêrsimi Duzgıno. Duzgın roştiya, evdıl Musa tariyo!. Vervê Eskerê Evdıl Musay de eskerê Duzgıni vındeno [Turkish S. 84-103: Dersim İnancı’nda Duzgın (Doruat’in süvarisi): Can ile Cihann Tanrısı, Rehberi ve Himayesidir! Dersim’in Sultanı ve Kumandanı Duzgın’dır. Ayrıca Dersim’deki Kutsal Yer ve Yatırların da Başıdır. Duzgın Aydınlığı Simgeliyor, Evdıl Musa’ysa Karanlığı! Evdıl Musa’nin Askerleri’ne Karşı, Duzgın’ın Askerleri’ne Duruyor.]. Ware 11, 15-31. Baiersbronn.[Dt.: Der Glaube Dersims über Duzgin.].

Comerd, Munzır 1997. Yitiqatī Dersımi de Helıka Gızıkıne. Tija Sodıri 5/2, 32-37. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about Helıka Gızıkıne.].

Comerd, Munzır 1997. Yitiqatī Dersımi de Helıka Gızıkıne. Tija Sodıri 5/2, 32-37. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Der Glaube Dersims über Helıka Gızıkıne.].

Comerd, Munzır 1998. İtiqatī Dêsımi de mori ‘be ewliya ra, [Turkish: Dersim İnancı’dan Yılan ve Tarikat Değneği, 121-129. Ware 12, 58-69, [Turkish: 113-126]. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about the Serpent and the Wand-Orders.].

Comerd, Munzır 1998. İtiqatī Dêsımi de mori ‘be ewliya ra, [Turkish: Dersim İnancı’dan Yılan ve Tarikat Değneği, 121-129. Ware 12, 58-69, [Turkish: 113-126]. Baiersbronn. [Dt.: Der Glaube Dersims über die Schlange und die Wander-Ordensgemeinschaften].

Comerd, Munzur 1998. Yitiqatī Dersimi de Xizir. Ware 12, 83-100, [Turkish: 113-126]. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Dersim Belief about Xızır.].

Comerd, Munzur 1998. Yitiqatī Dersimi de Xizir. Ware 12, 83-100, [Turkish: 113-126]. Baiersbronn. [Engl.: Der Glaube Dersims über Xızır.].

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Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: ˈElicanek u Warda Xoya. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 2007, 3-7. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. trans.: Elicanek and his Sister.].

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Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Gormaˈhmed. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 2007, 8-14. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. trans.: Blind Mahmed.].

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Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Lazeko Zerez. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 2007, 63-64. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Son of the partridge.].

Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Lu u Ardwaniya. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. (İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 2007), 33-36. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. trans.: The Fox and the Miller.].

Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Maˈhmeşa. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 2007, 37-44. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. transl.: Mahmesha].

Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Mêrdeko Tersanok – Camêrdo Zuray. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 59-62. http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. transl.: Scaredy Cat or Liar.].

Hayıg, Rosan. Mahmeşa: Vızêr ra Ewro Istanıkê Zazayan – Mahmescha: Zaza Volksmärchen von Damals und Heute – Mahmesha: Zaza Folktales: Then and Now: Qolo Poto. Ed. by Brigitte and Eberhard Werner. İstanbul: Vêj­i­yaişê Tiji/Tij Yayınları, 50-53. http://www.zazaki.de/kitabi/Mahmesa.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-04-20]. [Engl. trans.: The Multilated.].

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Werner, Brigitte & Werner, Eberhard 2007. Outline of Narrative Discourse Features in Di­m­­li­/­­­South­ern Zazaki. Work Paper. Dallas: SIL International / European training program (etp). Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/53529 [PDF-File] [accessed 2013-09-20].

Werner, Brigitte & Werner, Eberhard 2008. Grammar Sketch for Zaza (Dialect of Çermık-Siverek-Gerger). Giessen: SIL International. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier].

Werner, Brigitte & Werner, Eberhard 2008. Grammar Sketch for Zaza (Dialect of Çermık-Siverek-Gerger). Work Paper. Giessen: SIL International. [unpublished].

Werner, Brigitte 2003. Reflexives Pronomen (xo) und unpersönliches Personalpronomen (cı). Marburg: Philipps University. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier]. [Engl.: Reflexive Pronoun (xo) and Personal Pronoun (cı).

Werner, Brigitte 2003. Terminologie der erweiterten Familienstruktur der Zaza (Çermug). Zaza Press 13, 20-21. Stockholm: ZazaPress. (Originaltitel des Artikels: Jenealoji). Und Online: URL: http://zazaki.de/zazaki/Kinshipdiagram_deutsch.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2013-07-06]. [Engl.: Terminology of the extended Family Structure of the Zaza (Çermug).].

Werner, Brigitte 2006. Features of bilingualism in the Zaza community. Termpaper. Marburg: Philipps University. (http://zazaki.de/english/articels/Termpaper­Bilingualism­WS06.pdf) [accessed 2012-02-02].

Werner, Brigitte 2007. Features of Bilingualism in the Zaza Community. Marburg: Philipps Universität. [unver­öffe­nt­lichtes Kurspapier].

Werner, Brigitte 2008. Anleitung zum Sprachelernen des Zazaki für Anfänger. [unver­öffent­lichtes Lehrmaterial].

Werner, Brigitte 2009. Terminologie der erweiterten Familienstruktur der Zaza (Region Çermik/Gerger/Siverek). [Kinship diagram (Çermik/Gerger/Siverek region).] Online publication: http://zazaki.de/zazaki/Kinshipdiagram_deutsch.pdf. English: http://zazaki.de/zazaki/Kinshipdiagram_englisch.pdf) [accessed 2012-02-02].

Werner, Brigitte 2012. Coding of Background Information in Zazaki Narrative (SIL International) [Zaza Romanıinda Temel Bilgirlerin Kodlanışı (Uluslararası SIL)], in Varol, Murat & Elaltuntaş, Ömer Faruk (eds.): 1. Bingöl Symposium on the Zaza Language (13th-14th May 2011) [1. Uluslararası Zaza Dili Sempozyumu (13-14 Mayıs 2011).], 49-68 [Turkish translation: 69-87]. Bingöl: Bingöl Universitesi Yayınları.

Werner, Brigitte 2012. Vignette: What a color can tell. EAA Anthropology Newsletter 2/5, 3. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard (ed.) 2016. Jahrbuch zur Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung – Forum Bibelübersetzung 2013-2015. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard (ed.) 2016. Jahrbuch zur Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung – Forum Bibelübersetzung 2013-2015. Nuremberg: VTR. [Engl.: Yearbook on the Science of Bible translation – Forum Bible translation 2013-2015.].

Werner, Eberhard (Hg.) 2012. Bibelübersetzung als Wissenschaft – Aktuelle Fragestellungen und Perspektiven: Beiträge zum „Forum Bibelübersetzung“ aus den Jahren 2005 – 2011, 7-28. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Werner, Eberhard (ed.) 2012. Bible Translation as Science – Current Issues and Perspectives: Articles on the “Forum Bible Translation” from the years 2005-2011. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Werner, Eberhard (Hg.) 2012. Bibelübersetzung als Wissenschaft – Aktuelle Fragestellungen und Perspektiven: Beiträge zum „Forum Bibelübersetzung“ aus den Jahren 2005 – 2011. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Werner, Eberhard (ed.) 2012. Bible Translation as Science – Current Issues and Perspectives: Articles on the “Forum Bible Translation” from the years 2005-2011. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Werner, Eberhard [2011]. The Struggle for Identity: Cognitive Anthropology: Aspects of the Zaza Worldview. Power Point Presentation. 15th Anniversary of the Journal Iran and the Caucasus in Yerewan / Armenia. Yerewan: State University of Armenia.

Werner, Eberhard [2013]. What Stories Tell – Communication and the oral-aural Traditions of an East-Anatolian Ethnicity. Festschrift to Prof. Dr. Garnik 60th anniversary. Yerevan: Yerevan State University. [unpublished].

Werner, Eberhard 2005. Questionnaire on the Practices and Rituals in Zaza culture with 15 participants, including research of Zazaki literature. Based on a WEC International questionnaire about cultural Anthropology. Holzhausen: SIL International. [unpublished].

Werner, Eberhard 2006. Bibelübersetzung als missionstheologisches Kommunikationsmodell: Dar­ge­stellt am Beispiel der Bibelübersetzung in die Sprache der Zaza, exempla­risch am Bei­spiel des Begriffes „Mensch“. Wissenschaftliche Hausarbeit. Gießen: Aka­demie für Mission und Gemeindebau. [unveröffentlichte Masterarbeit]. [Engl. Bible Translation as a Missiological-Theological Communication Model: Exemplified on the Bible Translation in the Zaza Language, specifically on the Term “Man”. Academic Thesis. Gießen: Academy for Missiology and Church Planting. Unpublished Masterthesis.].

Werner, Eberhard 2006a. Empirische Sozialforschung am Beispiel eines displaced project. Seminar­beit im Fach Evangelistische Modelle in Europa. Vorlesung vom 06.-08. November 2006. Wiedenest: MTh-Programm UNISA. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier]. [Engl.: Empirical Research in Societal Sciences exemplified on a displaced project. Seminary Thesis in Models in Evangelism in Europe from 06th-08th December 2006. Wiedenest MTh Program UNISA. (unpublished).].

Werner, Eberhard 2006b. Mission unter Muslimen im Kontext: Eine kritische Stellungnahme. Vorlesung vom 23.-26. Oktober 2006. Wiedenest: MTh Programm UNISA. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier]. [Engl.: Mission under Muslims: A Critical Perspective. Seminary Thesis in Science of Missiology from 23rd-06th December 2006. Wiedenest MTh Program UNISA. (unpublished).].

Werner, Eberhard 2006c. Gesellschaftsrelevante Gemeinwesenarbeit. Seminararbeit im Fach Gesell­schaftsrelevante Gemeinwesenarbeit. Vorlesung vom 04.-06. Dezember 2006. Wiedenest: MTh Programm UNISA. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier]. [Engl.: Societal relevant Community Organizing. Seminary Thesis in Societal Sciences from 04th-06th December 2006. Wiedenest MTh Program UNISA. (unpublished).].

Werner, Eberhard 2009. Gemeinschaftsprojekt Zazaki-Türkisch-Lexikon. Gießen. [unveröffentlichtes Arbeitspapier]. [Engl.: Joint Project Zazaki-Turkish Dictionnary. (unpublished).].

Werner, Eberhard 2010. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis, in Müller, Klaus W. (Hg.): Menschenrechte – Freiheit – Mission: Eine globale Herausforderung. Referate der Jahrestagung 2010 des Arbeitskreises für evangelikale Missiologie (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 18, 145-151. Nürnberg: VTR. [Engl.: Bible Translation in Theory and Practice, in Müller, Klaus (ed.): Human Rights – Freedom – Mission: ‘A Global Challenge. Lectures at the Annual Conference of the Working Group for evangelical Missiology (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 18, 145-151. Nuremburg: VTR.]. [Engl.: Bible Translation in Theory and Practice: An Overview about its Interdisciplinarity exemplified on the Practice of Training.].

Werner, Eberhard 2010. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis. PhD-Thesis. Lampeter: University of Wales. Abstract Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/50654 [accessed 2014-02-29]. [unveröffentlicht]. [Engl.: Bible Translation in Theory and Practice. (unpublished).].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. 4 Andachten, in Riederer, Werner & Riederer, Susanne (Hgg.): Meines Fußes Leuchte: 365 x Licht für den Alltag. Marburg: Francke. [Engl.: 4 Devotions, in Riederer, Werner & Riederer, Susanne (eds.): The Light unto my Path: 365 x Light for Daily Live.].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität anhand der Ausbildungspraxis. Hamburg: Kovač. [Englische Übersetzung: Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Mandate for Bible Translation – Models of Communication and Translation in Theory and Practice in regard to the Science of Bible Translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/51438 or http://www.forschungsinstitut.net/sites/all/files/uploads/Bible%20Translation%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20EberhardWerner.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-11-10] [suche nach Eberhard Werner SIL]].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität anhand der Ausbildungspraxis. Hamburg: Kovač. [English Translation: Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Mandate for Bible Translation – Models of Communication and Translation in Theory and Practice in regard to the Science of Bible Translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/51438 or http://www.forschungsinstitut.net/sites/all/files/uploads/Bible%20Translation%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20EberhardWerner.pdf [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2017-09-10]].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Cultural Anthropology – Social Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 1/2, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Das Mandat zur Bibelübersetzung: Der lange Weg zu einer „Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung“. em 27/1, 36-49. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie. [Engl.: The Mandate for Bible Translation: The long way towards a “Science of Bible Translation”.].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. The Struggle for Identity: Cognitive Anthropology: Aspects of the Zaza Worldview. Power Point Presentation and Paper presented at the 15th Anniversary of the publication Iran and the Caucasus. Leiden: Brill. [unpublished].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Time – Insights from Cultural Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 1/1. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Worldview and Conscience: LEIC a Tool to Cognitive Anthropology. Paper presented at the Translation, Anthropology, Linguistics Conference in Horsleys Green. SIL International. [unpublished].

Werner, Eberhard 2011. Worldview and Conscience: LEIC a Tool to Cognitive Anthropology. Power Point Presentation presented at the Translation, Anthropology, Linguistics Conference in Horsleys Green. SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2012. “Anthro-Annie” asks: How does Anthropology serve (SIL) field projects? EAA Anthro News 2/3, 1-2. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Bi- und Multilingualität als Chance – Zazaki als Lehr-, Lern- und Umgangssprache. Präsentation bei der Veranstaltung: Serva Zon u Kulturê Ma – Veranstaltung zur Geschichte, Sprache und Kultur der Zazas, 03.11.2012. Mannheim. [Engl.: Bi- and Multilinguality as Chance – Zazaki as Language of Teaching, Learning and Common Speech. Power Point Presentation at the Cultural Zaza Meeting on the 03rd November 2012. Mannheim.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Bibelübersetzung – Schnittstelle zwischen Kulturen. Untersuchungen zu den iranischen Sprachen und Kulturen. Bonn: Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft. [Engl.: Bible Translation – Interface between Cultures. Investigations on Iranian Languages and Cultures. Bonn: Publishing House of Culture and Science.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Bibelübersetzung im Orient – Neue Überlegungen. em 1/28, 3-16 Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie. [Engl.: Bible Translation in the Orient – Considered Anewly.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Considerations about the religions of the Zaza people, in Varol, Murat (ed.): 2. Bingöl Symposium on the Zaza Language (04th-06th May 2012) [2. Uluslararası Zaza Dili Sempozyumu (04-06 Mayıs 2012).], 17-37 [Turkish translation: Zazaların Dinleri üzerine düşünceler (Türkçe çeviri), 38-55]. Bingöl: Bingöl Universitesi Yayınları. [Bingöl University Publications]. Also Online: URL: http://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/58519 [Presentation]. And http://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/58516 [accessed 2015-02-01].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Contextualisation. Power-Point Presentation at the Global Alliance Europe Conference in Burbach / Germany, 27th June 2012. [unpublished].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Danksagung zum George W. Peters Forschungspreis, in Badenberg, Robert, Knödler Friedemann, Schirrmacher (Hg.): Gott – der Drei-Eine. Referate der Jahrestagung 2012 des Arbeitskreises für evangelikale Missiologie (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 20, 165-167. Nürnberg: VTR. [angekündigt]. [Engl.: Thanksgiving for the George W. Peters Research Award, in Badenberg, Robert, Knödler Friedemann, Schirrmacher (Hg.): Gott – the Three-in One. Presentations at the annual Meeting 2012 of the Working Group on evangelical Missiology (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 20, 165-167. Nuremberg: VTR.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Die biblische Offenbarung – Nadelöhr göttlicher Kommunikation: Ein Überblick der trinitarisch-kommunikativen Grundlagen in Bezug auf die Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung, in Badenberg, Robert, Knödler Friedemann, Schirrmacher (Hg.): Gott – der Drei-Eine. Referate der Jahrestagung 2012 des Arbeitskreises für evangelikale Missiologie (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 20, 136-150. Nürnberg: VTR. [Engl.: The Biblical revelation – Bottleneck of Divine Communication: Overview of Trinitarian- Communicative Foundations in Relation to the Science of Bible Translation, in Badenberg, Robert, Knödler Friedemann, Schirrmacher (Hg.): Gott – the Three-in One. Presentations at the annual Meeting 2012 of the Working Group on evangelical Missiology (AfeM), edition afem mission reports 20, 136-150. Nuremberg: VTR.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Einleitung, in Werner, Eberhard (Hg.): Bibelübersetzung als Wissenschaft – Aktuelle Fragestellungen und Perspektiven: Beiträge zum „Forum Bibelübersetzung“ aus den Jahren 2005 – 2011, 7-28. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Introduction, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Bible Translation as Science – Current Issues and Perspectives: Articles on the “Forum Bible Translation” from the years 2005-2011, 7-28. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Folk Islam: An anthropological Glimpse. EAA Anthro News 2/3, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Intercultural / Cross-Cultural Teams – Dyadic-dynamic Aspects. EAA Anthro News 2/2, 5-6. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Kontextualisierung und Bibelübersetzung, in Werner, Eberhard (Hg.): Bibelübersetzung als Wissenschaft – Aktuelle Fragestellungen und Perspektiven: Beiträge zum „Forum Bibelübersetzung“ aus den Jahren 2005 – 2011, 285-304. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/63317 [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-10-10]. [Engl.: Contextualisation and Bible Translation, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Bible Translation as Science – Current Issues and Perspectives: Articles on the “Forum Bible Translation” from the Years 2005-2011, 285-304. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Rezension: Joshua Lingel, Jeff Morton, Bill Nikides (eds.), Chrislam: How Missionaries Are Promoting an Islamized Gospel, Biola: i2 Ministries Publications, 2011, 344 Seiten. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Rezension: Joshua Lingel, Jeff Morton, Bill Nikides (eds.), Chrislam: How Missionaries Are Promoting an Islamized Gospel, Biola: i2 Ministries Publications, 2011, 344 Seiten. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Rezension: Noor, Farish A., Sikand, Yoginder & Bruinessen, Martin van (eds.), The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2007, 303 Seiten. Online: URL: http://www.forschungs­stiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Rezension: Noor, Farish A., Sikand, Yoginder & Bruinessen, Martin van (eds.), The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages, Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2007, 303 Seiten. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Toward an Ethical Code in Bible Translation Consulting. Journal of Translation (JOT) 8/1, 1-8. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Also Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/siljot/2012/1/928474548941/siljot2012-1-01.pdf [PDF] [accessed 2015-01-02].

Werner, Eberhard 2012. Zazaların Dinleri üzerine düşünceler (Türkçe çeviri), in Varol, Murat (ed.): II. Uluslararası Zaza Dili Sempozyumu (04-06 Mayıs 2012), 38-55 [Engl: 2. Bingöl Symposium on the Zaza Language (04th-06th May 2012).], [English original: Considerations about the religions of the Zaza people, 17-37.]. Bingöl: Bingöl Universitesi Yayınları. [Bingöl University Publications]. Also Online: URL: http://www.reap.insitehome.org/­handle/­9284745/­58519 [Presentation]. And http://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/58516 [accessed 2015-02-01].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Anthro-Annie on Colonialism. EAA Anthro News 3/4, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Bericht von dem 9. Forum Bibelübersetzung. em 29/3, 167. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Challenges to Anthropology in a restructuring Bible Translation-oriented Organization. EAA Anthro News 3/2, 1-2. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Rezension: Lukens-Bull, Ronald 2005. A Peaceful Jihad. Negotiating Identity and Modernity in Muslim Java. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. em 29/1, 69. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Text Discourse Features In Southern Zazaki (Çermik/Siverek Dialect) – A Glance at some Folktales. 5. International Conference of Iranian Linguistics, 25th-27th 2013. Bamberg: Otto-Friedrich-University of Bamberg. Online: http://bamling-research.de/data/2013-icil5/Werner_Text%20discourse%20fea… [PDF-File] or URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/54573 [accessed 2016-11-20]

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Text Discourse Features In Southern Zazaki (Çermik/Siverek Dialect) – A Glance at some Folktales. Poster Presentation. 5. International Conference of Iranian Linguistics, 25th-27th 2013. Bamberg: Otto-Friedrich-University of Bamberg. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/54574 [PDF-File] [accessed 2016-11-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Mandate for Bible Translation – Models of Communication and Translation in Theory and Practice in regard to the Science of Bible Translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/51438 or http://www.forschungsinstitut.net/sites/all/files/uploads/Bible%20Translation%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20EberhardWerner.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-11-10]. Translated from the German Original: Werner, Eberhard 2011. Bibelübersetzung in Theorie und Praxis: Eine Darstellung ihrer Interdisziplinarität anhand der Ausbildungspraxis. Hamburg: Kovač. [search for Eberhard Werner SIL].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Mandate for Bible Translation – Models of Communication and Translation in Theory and Practice in regard to the Science of Bible Translation. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/51438 or http://www.forschungsinstitut.net/sites/all/files/uploads/Bible%20Translation%20Theory%20and%20Practice%20EberhardWerner.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2017-11-02].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Struggle for Identity of the Zaza People – Aspects of their Worldview. Short version of The Struggle for Identity. Cognitive Anthropology: Aspects of the Zaza World­view. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/­26/94/­98/26949885340224918221806871091250328797/Struggle_for_Identity_short.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-08-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. The Struggle for Identity. Cognitive Anthropology: Aspects of the Zaza Worldview. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/­publications/­entry/­54563 [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-08-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2013. Toolbox as an Anthro tool. EAA Anthro News 3/1, 4. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2013.Values and Perceptions of the World and Conscience: Cognitive Anthropology exemplified by a Study about the Zaza people of Eastern Anatolia. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/59538 [PDF File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2015-10-10].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Anthro Annie: Gender and Society. EAA Anthro News 4/2, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Bericht: „10. Forum Bibelübersetzung“. em 29/3, 105. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Bibelübersetzung – eine ethische Besinnnung. em 30/2, 81-96. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie. [unveröffentlicht]. [Kurzform von: Werner, Eberhard 2014. Das Wesen der Bibelübersetzung – eine ethisch Besinnung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/archives/57785 [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2014-03-10]. [Engl.: Bible Translation – an ethical Reflection.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Book Review: Prenger, Jan Hendrik, 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A Grounded Theory. DMiss thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. [PDF File]. [unpublished]. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [accessed 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Book Review: Rynkiewich, Michael A. 2011. Soul, Self, and Society: A Postmodern Anthropology for Mission in a Postcolonial World. Eugene: Cascade. EAA Anthro News 4/5, 4-6. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Das Wesen der Bibelübersetzung – eine ethisch Besinnung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/archives/57785 [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2014-03-10]. [Kurzform publiziert unter: Werner, Eberhard 2014. Bibelübersetzung – eine ethische Besinnnung. em 30/2, 81-96. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie.]. [Engl.: The Essence of Bible Translation – an ethical Reflection.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Das Wesen der Bibelübersetzung – eine vorläufige ethisch-praxisbezogene Besinnung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://dc-9629-1146087009.us-east-1.elb.amazonaws.com/resources/archives… [PDF-File] [accessed 2014-05-05]. [Engl.: The Essence of Bible Translation – a contemporary ethical-practice relevant Reflection.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Die Augen der Anderen – Von Bittstellern und Nutznießern. Paraplegiker 32/2, 6-7. Mölsheim: Humanis.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Ethics in Anthropology or Anthropology of Morals? EAA Anthro News 4/4, 1-4. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Folklore and Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 4/6, 1-2. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Rezension: Noor, Farish A., Sikand, Yoginder & Bruinessen, Martin van (eds.) 2007. The Madrasa in Asia: Political Activism and Transnational Linkages. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. em 30/3, 164-166. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie.

Werner, Eberhard 2014. The Zaza Wedding Ritual and the German Diaspora – A comparative ethnographic Study of modern Mediterranean to ancient Biblical Practices. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/59538 [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2014-11-10].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Toward a Code of Ethics in Bible Translation. Journal of Translation (JOT) 10/1, 15-23. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Also Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/60391 [PDF] [accessed 2016-06-29].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Einblicke in die Arbeit der Bibelübersetzung, in Fuchs, Monika & Schliephake, Dirk (Hgg.): Bibel erzählen, 103-120. Neukirchen-Vlyn: Neukirchener Verlagsgesellschaft. [Kurzform des Artikels: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/56720 [accessed 2014-10-10]. [Engl.: From words to the “Word”: Cognitive and epistemological difficulties finding words.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/56720 [accessed 2014-10-10]. [Kurzform des Artikels unter: Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Einblicke in die Arbeit der Bibelübersetzung, in Fuchs, Monika & Schliephake, Dirk (Hgg.): Bibel erzählen, 103-120. Neukirchen-Vlyn: Neukirchener Verlagsgesellschaft.] [Engl.: From words to the “Word”: Cognitive and epistemological difficulties finding words.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/56720 [accessed 2014-10-10]. [Engl.: From words to the “Word”: Cognitive and epistemological difficulties finding words.].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-Störungen in der Bibelübersetzung. Göttingen. [unveröffentlicht] [Gekürzte Version des gleichnamigen Artikels unter: Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“ Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Online: URL: Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/56720 [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2014-03-10].].

Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“: Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/resources/publications/entry/56720 [PDF-File] [search for Eberhard Werner SIL] [accessed 2014-03-10]. [Ungekürzte Version des gleichnamigen Artikels unter: Werner, Eberhard 2014. Von Worten zum „Wort“ Kognitive und epistemologische Wortfindungs-„Störungen“ in der Bibelübersetzung. Göttingen. [unveröffentlicht].]

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Anthro Annie goes Academic. EAA Anthro News 4/5, 4. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Ausflug der Männerrunde in den Vogelpark Schotten. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. Dez. 2015-Febr 2016, 16. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Bericht: 11. Forum Bibelübersetzung. em 31/2, 87-88. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Boase, Roger (ed.) 2005. Rezension: Islam and Global Dialogue: Religious Pluralism and the Pursuit of Peace. em 31/1, 53-55. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Book Review: Du Mez, Kristine Kobes 2015. A New Gospel for Women: Katharine Bushnell and the Challenge of Christian Feminism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EAA Anthro News 5/5, 1-3. Dallas: SIL International. Also Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/63261 [PDF File] [accessed 2018-07-10].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Book Review: Du Mez, Kristine Kobes 2015. A New Gospel for Women: Katharine Bushnell and the Challenge of Christian Feminism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EAA Anthro News 5/5, 1-3. Dallas: SIL International. Also Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/63261 [PDF File] [accessed 2015-10-10].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Book Review: Prenger, Jan Hendrik, 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A Grounded Theory. DMiss thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. EAA Anthro News 5/6, 3-5. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [accessed 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Book Review: Prenger, Jan Hendrik, 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A Grounded Theory. DMiss thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. EAA Anthro News 5/6, 3-5. Dallas: SIL International. Online: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/­handle/9284745/62306 [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-12-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Book Review: Prenger, Jan Hendrik, 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A Grounded Theory. DMiss thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. [PDF File]. Also Online: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/­handle/9284745/62306 [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-12-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Buchempfehlung: Carswell, Jonathan & Wright, Joanna 2008: Susanne Geske: Ich will keine Rache – Das Drama von Malatya. Gießen: Brunnen [Engl.: Married to a martyr – The auhorized biography of a widow in Turkey. Milton Keynes: Authentic Media]. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. 3/2015, 14. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Buchempfehlung: Murrow, David 2011. Warum Männer nicht zum Gottesdienst gehen. Haiterbach: cap-books. [Engl.: Murrow, David 2005. Why Men hate to go to Church. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.]. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen 2/2015, 20. Gießen: Eigenverlag. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Buchempfehlung: The Bible, Disability and the Church – A new Vision of the People of God. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. Dez. 2015 – Febr 2016, 17-18. Gießen: Eigenverlag. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Churrasco: Männer – Feuer – Fleisch. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. 5/2015, 4-5. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Communication and the Oral-Aural Traditions of an East Anatolian Ethnicity: What us Stories tell!, in Bläsing, Uwe, Arakelova, Vistoria & Weinreich, Matthias (eds.): Studies on Iran and the Caucasus: In Honour of Garnik Asatrian, 667-691. Leiden: Brill. Also Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/63401 [PDF-File] [accessed 2015-10-10].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Männertag: Du bist genau richtig und gewollt. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. 3/2015, 4-5. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Rezension: Amos Yong 2011, The Bible, Disability, and the Church – A New Vision of the People of God. Grand Rapids: Eerdman, 2011, 160 Seiten, $22 (21,38 Euro). em (evangelische Missiologie) 31/4. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Rezension: Amos Yong 2011, The Bible, Disability, and the Church – A New Vision of the People of God. Grand Rapids: Eerdman, 2011, 160 Seiten, $22 (21,38 Euro). em (evangelische Missiologie) 31/4. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Rezension: Jeff Morton, Insider Movements: Biblically Incredible or Incredibly Brilliant? 2012. Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2012, 126 Seiten, 18 US-Dollar. em 31/3, 164-165. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Rezension: Rynkiewich, Michael A. 2011. Soul, Self, and Society: A Postmodern Anthropology for Mission in a Postcolonial World. Eugene: Cascade. em 31/2, 110-111. Gießen: Arbeitskreis für evangelikale Missiologie.

Werner, Eberhard 2015. Virtual teams. Welt der Schrift. Holzhausen: Wycliff Deutschland.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Anthro Annie: On Christianity and Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 6/3, 4. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Bericht von dem 12. Forum Bibelübersetzung. em 32/3, 105. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Book Review: Larsen, Timothy 2014. The Slain God. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EAA Anthro News 6/1, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International. And Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [accessed 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Book Review: Larsen, Timothy 2014. The Slain God. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EAA Anthro News 6/1, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International. And Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [accessed 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Buchempfehlung: The slain God. Larsen 2014. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. März 2016 – Mai 2016, 17-18. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Einleitung, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Jahrbuch zur Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung – Forum Bibelübersetzung 2013-2015, 7-15. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Gunah, sin in the Zaza community. EAA Anthro News 6/2, 4-5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Key Terminology – New Theoretical Perspectives, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Jahrbuch zur Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung – Forum Bibelübersetzung 2013-2015, 106-125. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. M & M Männer und Musik – Männertag Team F. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. März 2016 – Febr 2016, 10. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Männer–Politik. Gemeindebrief EfG Gießen. März 2016 – Febr 2016, 6. Gießen: Eigenverlag.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Migration und Flucht – Diaspora als Lebensmitte. em 32/3, 89-104. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Response to Merz’s Reflections on Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 6/4, 1-2. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Rezension: Prenger, Jan Hendrik 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A grounded Theory. DMiss Thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. [PDF-File]. [unveröffentlicht]. em 31/1, 53-55. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. [English: Online: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/­handle/­­9284745/­62306 [PDF-File] [accessed 2016-06-20]].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Rezension: Prenger, Jan Hendrik 2014. Muslim Insider Christ Followers: A grounded Theory. DMiss Thesis. La Mirada: Biola University – Faculty of Intercultural Studies. 470 pages. [PDF-File]. [unveröffentlicht]. em 1/16, 53-55. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.. [English: Online: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/­9284745/­62306 [PDF-File] [accessed 2016-03-20]].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Rezension: The Slain God. Larsen, Timothy 2014. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 32/3, 160-163. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Translation Theory and Bible Translation. Power Point Presentation at 12. Forum Bible Translation. Fjellhaug Internasjonale Høgskole 26-27th May. Oslo. [unpublished.].

Werner, Eberhard 2016. Vorwort, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Jahrbuch zur Wissenschaft der Bibelübersetzung – Forum Bibelübersetzung 2013-2015, 5. Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2016. What would Jesus say? EAA Anthro News 6/1, 7. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Anthro Annie: Ethics in Anthropology. EAA Anthro News 7/1, 5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Bible Translation as Science. Online: URL: https://www.reap.­insite­home.org/handle/9284745/68629. [accessed 2017-02-20]. [Stand 2020-02-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Disability Studies in Anthropology – Concepts of Dis/Abled Otherness –. Gießen: NeDSITh. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/node/94 [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Disability Studies und Missiologie. em 33/4, 210-223. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Norwegian and Danish Bible translation History, in Johnstad, Gunnar & Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 12th Forum Bible Translation 2016 – 200th Anniversary of the Norwegian Bible Society, 135-138. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Preface, in Johnstad, Gunnar & Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 12th Forum Bible Translation 2016 – 200th Anniversary of the Norwegian Bible Society, 5. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Georges, Jayson & Baker, Mark D. 2016. Ministering in Honor-Shame Cultures: Biblical Foundations and Practical Essentials. Downers Grove: IVP Academic. 291 pages. 20,99€. EAA Anthro News. Dallas: SIL International. And Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/76968 [PDF-File] [accessed 2018-11-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Georges, Jayson & Baker, Mark D. 2016. Ministering in Honor-Shame Cultures: Biblical Foundations and Practical Essentials. Downers Grove: IVP Academic. 291 Seiten. 20,99€. em 33/3, 160-163. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Georges, Jayson & Baker, Mark D. 2016. Ministering in Honor-Shame Cultures: Biblical Foundations and Practical Essentials. Downers Grove: IVP Academic. 291 pages. 20,99€. EAA Anthro News. Dallas: SIL International. And Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/76968 [PDF-File] [accessed 2018-11-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Vardit, Rispler-Cahim 2007. Disability in Islamic Law. Dordrecht: Springer. em 33/3, 173-175. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Vardit, Rispler-Cahim 2007. Disability in Islamic Law. Dordrecht: Springer. em 33/3, 173-175. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rezension: Wolfgang Grünstäudl & Schiefer-Ferrari Markus 2012. Gestörte Lektüre – Disability als hermeneutische Leitkategorie biblischer Exegese. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Reihe Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche: Beiträge zu diakonisch-caritativen Disability Studies. Band 4. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Rivers and Mountains; A Historical, Applied Anthropological and Linguistical Study of the Zaza People of Turkey including an Introduction to applied Cultural Anthropology. Nuremberg: VTR. Also Online: URL https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/72175 [accessed 2019-12-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Science of Translation. Online: URL: https://www.reap.­insite­home.org/handle/9284745/68626.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Science of Translation. Online: URL: https://www.reap.­insite­home.org/handle/9284745/68626. [accessed 2020-02-20]. [Stand 2020-02-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. The Holy Shrines: A chimney is not always a chimney!. EAA Anthro News 7/4, 5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Translation Theories and Bible Translation, in Johnstad, Gunnar & Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 12th Forum Bible Translation 2016 – 200th Anniversary of the Norwegian Bible Society, 76-97. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Translationese. Online: URL: https://www.reap.­insite­home.org/handle/9284745/68627. [accessed 2017-02-20]. [Stand 2020-02-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2017. Turkish Bible Translation. Online: URL: https://www.reap.­insite­home.org/handle/9284745/68628 [accessed 2020-02-20]. [Stand 2020-02-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Disability Studies und interkulturelle Theologie – Über oder Miteinander in der christlichen Entwicklungshilfe? Vortrag Ringvorlesung 30.05.2018. Online: URL: https://www.zedis-ev-hochschule-hh.de/files/werner_gross_300518.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 208-11-20]. Hamburg: Evangelische Hochschule. [unveröffentlicht].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Erst-, Revisions- und Neubibelübersetzung – Ein Überblick und Perspektiven -, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 13th Forum Bible Translation 2017 – 500th Anniversary of the Reformation, 135-164. Nuremberg: VTR. [Engl.: First-, Revisions- and New Bible translations – An Overview and Perspectives.].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Inclusivist Leadership. Power Point Presentation at 4th Christian Leadership Conference. 26.-27. April. Holzhausen: Karimu Center. Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/en/node/95 [accessed 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Introduction, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 13th Forum Bible Translation 2017 – 500th Anniversary of the Reformation, 7-11. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Metaphors of Inclusion – Modelling Friendship in Leadership, in Jung, Stephan, Kessler, Volker, Kretzschmar, Louise & Meier, Elke (Hgg.): Metaphors for Leading – Leading by Metaphors, 65-74. Göttingen. Vandenhoek & Ruprecht unipress. ISBN 9783847109150

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Preface, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 13th Forum Bible Translation 2017 – 500th Anniversary of the Reformation, 5-6. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Review Jeremy Schipper, Disability & Isaiah’s Suffering Servant. Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/76871 [PDF-File] [accessed 2018-11-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Disability and Isaiah’s Suffering Servant. Schipper, Jeremy 2011. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 34/1, 50-52. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/­9284745/­76871 [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2018-11-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Disability and Isaiah’s Suffering Servant. Schipper, Jeremy 2011. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 34/1, 50-52. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Du Mez, Kristine Kobes 2015. A New Gospel for Women: Katharine Bushnell and the Challenge of Christian Feminism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 34/2, 115-117. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Du Mez, Kristine Kobes 2015. A New Gospel for Women: Katharine Bushnell and the Challenge of Christian Feminism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 34/2, 115-117. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Richard Harvey, Mapping Messianic-Jewish Theology: A Constructive Approch. Studies in Messianic Jewish Theology. Columbria: Authentic Media, 2009, 316 Seiten, ca. 14 EUR. em 34/4, 232-233. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Richard Harvey, Mapping Messianic-Jewish Theology: A Constructive Approach. Studies in Messianic Jewish Theology. Columbria: Authentic Media, 2009, 316 Seiten, ca. 14 EUR. em 34/4, 232-233. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: Schipper, Jeremy 2011. Disability and Isaiah’s Suffering Servant. Oxford: Oxford University Press. EAA Anthro News, p. 5. Dallas: SIL International.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Rezension: The Slain God. Larsen, Timothy 2014. Oxford: Oxford University Press. em 33/3, 160-163. Gießen: Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion. Und Online: URL: http://www.forschungsstiftung.net/de/buchtipps [Stand 2018-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Turkish, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 13th Forum Bible Translation 2017 – 500th Anniversary of the Reformation, 76-97. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2018. Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 13th Forum Bible Translation 2017 – 500th Anniversary of the Reformation. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Bible Translation as Science, in Brunn, Stanley & Kehrein, Roland (eds.): Handbook of the Changing World Language Map, 14 p. Cham: Springer Nature. Online: URL: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2F978-3-319-73400-2_104-1.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2019-05-24].

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Disability Studies in Bible Translation – Inclusivist Language, in Noss, Philip & Houser, Charles S. (ed.): A Guide to Bible Translation: People, Languages, and Topics, 407-409. Maitland: Xulon Press; and Swindon: United Bible Societies.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Introduction, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 14th Forum Bible Translation: Missiology, Theology, Linguistics and Archeology, 7-12. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Kirchlicher Entwicklungsdienst in Zeiten politischer Umbrüche – Der »Orient« um die Jahrhundertwende. Online: URL: https://forschungsstiftung.net/de/node/106. [Stand 2019-11-10]. Giessen: Forschungs-Stiftung Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Political Correctness and Nondiscrimatory or Inclusive Language. Power Point Presentation at Beyond Boundaries Conference, 13-15th March. Online: URL: Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/80758. Oxford: Oxford Center of Mission Studies (OCMS). [accessed 2020-01-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Political Correctness and Nondiscrimatory or Inclusive Language. Examples, Justification and open Questions in Bible Translation. Power Point Presentation at Bible Translation Forum, 15-16th May. Online: URL: https://www.reap.insitehome.org/handle/9284745/80759. Oslo: Fjellhaug University. [accessed 2019-06-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Political Correctness and Nondiscriminatory or Inclusive Language – Examples, Justification and Open Questions in Translation -, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 14th Forum Bible Translation: Missiology, Theology, Linguistics and Archeology, 83-97. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Rezension: Danys, Miroslav 2016. Diakonie im Herzen Europas: Ursprünge, Entwicklungen und aktuelle Herausforderungen in West & Ost, neu betrachtet aus Anlass des Reformationsjubiläums. Münster: LIT Verlag. Reihe LLG Leiten. Lenken. Gestalten Band 38. em 35/4, 209-211. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Rezension: Danys, Miroslav 2016. Diakonie im Herzen Europas: Ursprünge, Entwicklungen und aktuelle Herausforderungen in West & Ost, neu betrachtet aus Anlass des Reformationsjubiläums. Münster: LIT Verlag. Reihe LLG Leiten. Lenken. Gestalten Band 38. em 35/4, 209-211. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Rezension: Krauß, Anne 2014. Barrierefreie Theologie: Das Werk Ulrich Bachs vorgestellt und weitergedacht. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Reihe Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche: Beiträge zu diakonisch-caritativen Disability Studies. Band 8. em 35/2, 101-103. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Rezension: Krauß, Anne 2014. Barrierefreie Theologie: Das Werk Ulrich Bachs vorgestellt und weitergedacht. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Reihe Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche: Beiträge zu diakonisch-caritativen Disability Studies. Band 8. em 35/2, 101-103. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Science of Bible translation and Translation studies, in Noss, Philip & Houser, Charles S. (ed.): A Guide to Bible Translation: People, Languages, and Topics, 724-732. Maitland: Xulon Press; and Swindon: United Bible Societies. 978-1-54565-812-3

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Science of Translation, in Brunn, Stanley & Kehrein, Roland (eds.): Handbook of the Changing World Language Map, 14 p. Cham: Springer Nature. And Online: URL: https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-319-73400-2_105-1.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2019-05-20].

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Translationese in Bible Translation, in Werner, Eberhard (ed.): Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 14th Forum Bible Translation: Missiology, Theology, Linguistics and Archeology, 98-112. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Translationese, in Noss, Philip & Houser, Charles S. (ed.): A Guide to Bible Translation: People, Languages, and Topics, 861-862. Maitland: Xulon Press; and Swindon: United Bible Societies.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Turkish, in Noss, Philip & Houser, Charles S. (ed.): A Guide to Bible Translation: People, Languages, and Topics, 263-264. Maitland: Xulon Press; and Swindon: United Bible Societies.

Werner, Eberhard 2019. Yearbook on the Science of Translation: 14th Forum Bible Translation: Missiology, Theology, Linguistics and Archeology. Nuremberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Disability Studies – An Overview from an (intercultural) theological Perspective. Online: URL: https://forschungsstiftung.net/en/node/90 [accessed 2020-03-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Disability Studies – Ein Überblick aus (interkulturell) theologischer Perspektive. Gießen: Netzwerk Disability Studies Interkulturelle Theologie. Online: URL: https://forschungsstiftung.net/de/node/35 [Stand 2020-03-30].

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Interkulturelle Theologie, Missionswissenschaften und Missiologie – Beobachtungen und Perspektiven–, in Werner, Eberhard & Johnstad, Gunnar (eds.): Yearbook on the Science of Bible Translation, . Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Introduction, in Werner, Eberhard & Johnstad, Gunnar (eds.): Yearbook on the Science of Bible Translation, . Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Kirchlicher Entwicklungsdienst in Zeiten politischer Umbrüche – Der »Orient« um die Jahrhundertwende (20. Jh.) – Ein historischer Blick aus den Disability Studies in transkulturellen und interreligiösen Diskursen. [unveröffentlicht].

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Modern forms of translation and communication – The Digital Revolution and its unpredictable Developments by Social Media and Computer tools for Bible Translation -, in Werner, Eberhard & Johnstad, Gunnar (eds.): Yearbook on the Science of Bible Translation, . Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Preface, in Werner, Eberhard & Johnstad, Gunnar (eds.): Yearbook on the Science of Bible Translation, . Nürnberg: VTR.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Rezension: Conner, Benjamin T. 2018. Disabling Mission, Enabling Witness: Exploring Missiology Through the Lens of Disability Studies. Abingdon: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978.0.8308-5102-7. 176 Seiten. 18,99€. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Rezension: Deuel, David C. & John, Nathan G. 2019. Disability in Mission: The Church’s Hidden Treasure. Peabody: Hendrickson. ISBN 978.1.68307.201.0, 167 Seiten. 18,50€. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Rezension: Eurich, Johannes & Lob-Hüdepohl, Andreas 2014. Behinderung – Profile inklusiver Theologie, Diakonie und Kirche. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Reihe Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche: Beiträge zu diakonisch-caritativen Disability Studies. Band 7. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Rezension: Eurich, Johannes & Lob-Hüdepohl, Andreas 2014. Behinderung – Profile inklusiver Theologie, Diakonie und Kirche. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Reihe Behinderung-Theologie-Kirche: Beiträge zu diakonisch-caritativen Disability Studies. Band 7. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard 2020. Rezension: Noss, Philip A. & Houser, Charles S. (eds.). 2019. A Guide to Bible Translation: People, Languages, and Topics. Maitland: Xulon Press; and Swindon: United Bible Societies. 896 Seiten. 65,90€. Band 7. em 36/1, 56-58. Gießen: missiotop – Evangelischer Arbeitskreis für Mission, Kultur und Religion.

Werner, Eberhard forthcoming 2019. Orality and Folklore Reflections on the Zaza folktales, in Korangy, Alireza (ed.): Essays on Kurdish Narratology and Folklore: Oral tradition, History, and Nationalism. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (unpublished).

Werner, Oswald 1996. Ethnographic Translation: Issues and Challenges. Sartoniana 7, 59-135. Gent: University of Gent.

Werner, Oswald 1998. Short Take 24: Do We Need Standards for Ethnography? Field Methods 10/1, 1-3. London: SAGE. Online: URL: http://fmx.sagepub.com/content/10/1/1.refs.html [accessed 2014-03-20].

Westermann, Claus 1974. Genesis: Genesis 1-11. 1. Teilband. Biblischer Kom­mentar Altes Testament, begründet von M. Noth, Band I/1. Neukir­chen-Vluyn: Neukirchner Verlag.

Wetzel, Klaus 1995. Kirchengeschichte Asiens. Wuppertal: Brockhaus.

Wetzel, Klaus 2019. Die Geschichte der christlichen Mission: Von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart – ein Kompendium. Giessen: Brunnen.

Weymire, Bob & Wagner, C.P 1991. Handbuch für Gemeindeanalyse. 2. Aufl. Lörrach: Wolfgang Simon.

Wheatcroft, Andrew 2005. Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. New York: Random House.

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Wiher, Hannes 2003. Shame and Guilt: A Key to Cross-Cultural Ministry. Edi­tion IWG, Mission Aca­demics, Bd. 10. Bonn: Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft.

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Wright, Nicholas Thomas 1996. Jesus and the Victory of God. London: SPCK.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 1996. Jesus and the Victory of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God 2. Minneapolis: Fortress.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 1997. What Saint Paul Really Said. Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity? Oxford: Lion.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2000. Paul’s Gospels and Caesar’s Empire, in Horsley, Ricahrd A. (Hg.): Paul and Politics: Ekklesia, Israel, Imperium, Interpretation. Essays in Honor of Krister Stendahl, 160-183. Harrisburg: Trinity Press International. [= Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 168-190. London: SPCK.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2002. Paul and Caesar: A New Reading of Romans, in Batholomew, Craig (Hg.): A Royal Priesthood: The Use of the Bible Ethically and Politically, 173-193. Carlisle: Paternoster. [= Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 237-254. London: SPCK.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2004. Redemption from the New Perspective? Towards a Multi-layered Pauline Theology of the Cross, in Davis, Stephen T., Kenndall, Daniel & O’Collins, Gerald (Hgg.): The Redemption, 69-100. Oxford: Oxford University Press. [= Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 292-316. London: SPCK.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2005. Paul. In a fresh Perspective. Minneapolis: Fortress.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2006. 4QMMT and Paul: Justification, ‘Works’ and Eschatology, in Son, Sang-won & Son, S. Aaron (Hgg.): History and Exegesis: New Testament Essays in Honor of Dr. Edward Earle Ellis for his 80th Birthday, 104-132. London: T&T Clark International. [Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 332-355. London: SPCK.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2009. Justification. God’s Plan and Paul’s Vision. London: SPCK.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2010. Worum es Paulus wirklich ging. Gießen: Brunnen. [Engl.: Wright 1997. What Saint Paul Really Said. Oxford: Lion.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2011. Das Neue Testament und das Volk Gottes. Übersetzt von R. Behrens. Marburg an der Lahn: Francke. [Engl.: The New Testament and the People of God].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2011. Justification: Yesterday, Today and For Ever. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 54/1, 49-63. [Kurztitel: Justification II = Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 422-438].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2013. Jesus und der Sieg Gottes. Übersetzt von R. Behrens. Marburg an der Lahn: Francke. [Engl.: 1996. Jesus and the Victory of God.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2013. Paul and the Faithfullness of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God 4. 2 Vols. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2013.

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2013. Paul and the Patriarch: The Role(s) of Abraham in Galatians and Ro¬ mans. Journal for the Study of the New Testament 35/3, 207-241. London: SAGE. [Wright 2013. Pauline Perspectives, 554-592. London: SPCK.].

Wright, Nicholas Thomas 2013. Pauline Perspectives. London: SPCK and Minneapolis: Fortress.

Wrogemann, Henning 2012. Lehrbuch Interkulturelle Theologie/Missionswissenschaft: Interkulturelle Theologie und Hermeneutik: Grundfragen, aktuelle Beispiele, theoretische Perspektiven. Band 1. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. [Engl.: Intercultural Theology and Hermeneutics: Basic Questions – actual Examples, theoretical Perspectives.]

Wrogemann, Henning 2013. Missionstheologien der Gegenwart: Globale Entwicklungen, kontextuelle Profile und ökumenische Herausforderungen. Lehrbuch Interkulturelle Theologie/ Missionswissenschaft. Band 2. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. [Engl.: Recent Mission Theologies: Global Developments, contextualized Profiles and ecumenical Challenges.]

Wrogemann, Henning 2015. Lehrbuch Interkulturelle Theologie / Missionswissenschaft: Theologie Interreligiöser Beziehungen: Religionstheologische Denkwege, kulturwissenschaftliche Anfragen und ein methodischer Neuansatz. Band 3. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

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Yuckman, Colin H. 2016. The Jesus Film: Between Global Christianization and World Christianity. Paper, 34-46. Wilmore: Asbury Theological Semoinary. Online: URL: https://place.asburyseminary.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.de/&httpsredir=1&article=1058&context=firstfruitspapers [accessed 2020-03-30].

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Zorell, Franciscus S.I. 1999. Lexicon graecum novi testamenti. Editio quarta typis editionis alterius expressa novaque appendice biblographica aucta. 5th ed. Roma: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico.

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Deutsche Bibelübersetzungen

BasisB(ibel): Grund genug zu leben – Die Bibel interaktiv. Neues Testament 2010. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­­sell­schaft. Und Online: URL: http://www.basisbibel.de/basisbibel-online/­bibel­text/ [Stand 2012-06-06].

Begegnung fürs Leben – Die Studienbibel für jeden Tag: Neues Testament 2003. Holz­gerl­ing­en: Hänssler.

Bibel in gerechter Sprache (BigS) [2006] 2011. Bail, Ulrike u. a. 2. rev. Aufl. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus. Und Online: URL: http://www.bibel-in-gerechter-sprache.de/ [Stand 2017-04-20].

Bail, Ulrike u. a. [2006] 2011. Bibel in gerechter Sprache (BigS). 2. rev. Aufl. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

DaBhaR – DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Alten Bundes und DIE GESCHRIEBENE des Neuen Bundes 1989. 2. Bde. Baader, Fritz Henning. Schömberg: Eigenverlag.

Das Alte Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Hebräisch-Deutsch 2003. Steurer, Rita Maria. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Steurer, Rita Maria 2003. Das Alte Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Hebräisch-Deutsch. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

das buch – Standardausgabe: Das Neue Testament 2009. Werner, Roland. Witten: SCM Brockhaus. (HB in Bearbeitung – Ausgabe als Einheitswerk geplant).

Das jüdische Neue Testament: Eine Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments, die seiner jüdischen Herkunft Rechnung trägt 1995. Stern, David H. Neuhausen: Hänssler.

Das Neue Testament 1925. Dimmler, Emil. Mönchen-Gladbach: Volksvereins-Verlag.

Das Neue Testament 1938. Rösch, Konstantin. O.M.Cap. Pader­born: Schöningh.

Das Neue Testament 1970. Wilckens, Ulrich. Hamburg: Furche.

Das Neue Testament 2000. Zink, Jörg. Stuttgart: Kreuz.

Das Neue Testament (NeÜ): Neue evangelistische Übertragung 2003. Vanheiden, Karl-Heinz. Dillenburg: Christliche Verlagsgesellschaft.

Das Neue Testament in der Sprache der Gegenwart 1988. Paul, Jonathan. 9. Aufl. Niedenstein: Missionsverlag des Missionsvereins Mülheim an der Ruhr e.V.

Das Neue Testament in die Sprache der Gegenwart 1999. Ludwig, Albrecht. Basel/Gießen: Brunnen.

Das Neue Testament: Interlinearübersetzung Griechisch-Deutsch 2003. Dietzfelbinger, Ernst. Holz­gerlingen: Hänssler.

Das Neue Testament nach Martin Luther 1975 1989. Revidierter Text. Stuttgart. Deutsche Bibel­­gesellschaft.

Das Neue Testament und frühchristliche Schriften – neu übersetzt und kommentiert (INSEL). Berger, Klaus & Nord, Christiane 1999. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Insel.

Die Bibel mit Erklärungen 2005. Bruns, Hans. Gießen: Brunnen.

Die Bibel nach dem hebräischen und griechischen Grundtext (SCH/SCL) [1951] 2002. Schlachter, Franz Eugen. Zürich: Genfer Bibelgesellschaft/ Bielefeld Christliche Literatur-Verbreitung.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der deutschen Über­setzung Martin Luthers 1545 2012 (L45). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1912 2001. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1984 1985. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­gesell­schaft.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der deutschen Über­setzung Martin Luthers 1908. Elberfeld: Bergische Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel oder die ganze Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments nach der Über­setzung Martin Luthers. Revidierter Text 1975. 1978. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelstiftung.

Das Neue Testament unseres Herrn und Heilandes Jesu Christi nach der deutschen Über­setz­ung D. Martin Luthers 1934. Neu durchgesehen nach dem vom Deutschen Evang­el­ischen Kir­chen­ausschuß genehmigten Text. Stuttgart: Privilegierte Würt­tem­berg­ische Bibelanstalt.

Das Neue Testament unseres Herrn und Heilandes Jesus Christus, nach der deutschen Über­setz­ung D. Martin Luther 1956. Revidierter Text. Stuttgart: Privilegierte Württem­bergische Bibel­anstalt.

Die Bibel nach der Übersetzung Martin Luthers 1984. Hrsg. von der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland. Revidierte Fassung; aus Anlass der neuen Rechtschreibung durchgesehen 1999. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Bibel nach Martin Luthers Übersetzung. Lutherbibel Revidiert 2017 mit Apokryphen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Luther 2017, Lutherübersetzung 2017]

Die fünf Bücher der Weisung [1954] 1992. Verdeutscht von Buber, Martin & Rosenzweig, Franz. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift Alten und Neuen Testaments 1994. Menge, Herrmann. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments (ZUR) [2003] 2007/2008. Rev. und überarbeitet Ausgabe. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testaments, aus der Vulgata mit Bezug auf den Grund­text übersetzt 1957. Allioli, Joseph Franz (katholischer Dom­propst in Augsburg). Wien: Bri­tische und Ausländische Bibelgesellschaft.

Die Heilige Schrift. Familienbibel: Altes und Neues Testament 1966. Hamp, Vinzenz, Stenzel, Meinrad & Kürzinger Josef. Vollständige Ausgabe nach den Grundtexten. Aschaf­fen­burg­/­Stutt­gart: Pattloch. [Und als CD-ROM].

Die Heilige Schrift [1954] 1995. Tur-Sinai, Naftali Herz (H. Torczyner). Neu ins Deutsche über­tragen. 4 Bde. Jerusalem/Neuhausen: Hänssler.

Die Schriftwerke [1962] 1992. Buber, Martin & Rosenzweig, Franz. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sel­lschaft.

Die vier Evangelien: Matthäus, Markus, Lukas, Johannes. Jens, Walter 1998. Stuttgart: Radius.

Die vierundzwanzig Bücher der Heiligen Schrift nach dem masoretischen Text [1837] 1980. Zunz, Leopold. Nachdruck. Basel: Victor Goldschmidt.

Die Volxbibel – Neues Testament 2005. Dreyer, Martin. Witten: Volxbibel. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-01-20].

Die Volxbibel – Altes Testament I: Mose – Esther 2009. Dreyer, Martin. München: Droemer Knaur. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-11-20].

Die Volxbibel – Altes Testament II: Hiob – Maleachi 2010. Dreyer, Martin. München: Droemer Knaur. Und Online: URL: http://wiki.volxbibel.com/ [Stand 2017-11-20].

Einheitsübersetzung: Die Bibel – Altes und Neues Testament (EIN) 1980. Stuttgart: Katholische Bibel­anstalt.

Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift (EIN) 1980. Hrsg. im Auftrag der Bischöfe Deutschlands, Österreichs, der Schweiz, der Bischöfe von Luxemburg, von Lüttich und von Bozen-Brixen (Psalmen und Neues Testament auch im Auftrag des Rates der Evangelischen Kirche in Deutschland). Stuttgart: Katholische Bibelanstalt.

Die Bibel – Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift 2016. Gesamtausgabe. Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk. [Einheitsübersetzung 2016.]

Elberfelder Bibel (ELO) [1905] 2006. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. (Elberfelder Übersetzung in alter, nicht über­ar­beit­eter Fassung von 1905. Hückeswagen: Christliche Schriftenverbreitung).

Genfer Studienbibel 1999. Sproul, Robert Charles. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Gute Nachricht Bibel (GNB) 1997. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Nachfolger der Bibel in heutigem Deutsch 1982.

Gute Nachricht Bibel (GNB) [1997] 2000. Im Auftrag und in Verantwortung der evangelischen Bibelgesellschaften und katholischen Bibelwerke in Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz. Revidierte Fassung 1997, aus Anlass der neuen Rechtschreibung durchgesehen. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Hoffnung für alle. Die Bibel (HfA) [1996] 2002. Basel und Gießen: Brunnen.

Hoffnung für alle: Die Bibel (HfA) 2002. Basel/Gießen: Brunnen.

Konkordantes Neues Testament (KonkNT) [1939] 1995. Knoch, Adolph Ernst. Birkenfeld: Konkordanter Verlag Pforzheim.

Lukas für Teens – Das Evangelium erfrischend neu erzählt 2004. Wilkes, Andre. Wuppertal: Oncken.

Neue Genfer Übersetzung – Neues Testament (NGÜ) 2009. Zürich: Genfer Bibel­gesell­schaft/Holzgerlingen: Hänssler.

Neue Genfer Übersetzung – Neues Testament und Psalmen (NGÜ) 2015. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Münchner Neues Testament (MNT) [1988] 2007. Hainz, Josef. 8. Aufl. Düsseldorf: Patmos.

Neue Jeru­salemer Bibel: Einheitsübersetzung mit dem Kommentar der Jerusalemer Bibel 2005. Deissler, Alfons, Vögtle, Anton & Nützel, Johannes M. (Hgg.). Frei­burg: Herder.

Neues Leben: Die Bibel 2005. Holzgerlingen: Hänssler. (engl. New Living Translation. Carol Stream: Tyndale).

Neue-Welt-Übersetzung der Heiligen Schrift (NWÜ/NWT) [revidiert 1986] 1997. Selters/Taunus: Wachtturm Bibel- u. Traktat-Gesellschaft. (engl. New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. NT 1950, whole Bible 1961. Pennsylvania: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society).

Neue Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 2007/2008. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Neues Testament 1938. Storr, Rupert. Stuttgart: Schwabenverlag.

Offene Bibel. Online Bibel. 3 Bibeln in einem Projekt. Studienversion, Leichte Sprache, Lesefassung. Frankfurt: Offene Bibel e.V. Online: URL: http://www.offene-bibel.de/ [Stand 2017-04-30].

Revidierte Elberfelder Bibel (ELB) 1992. Wuppertal: Brockhaus. (Die Heilige Schrift. Elberfelder Über­setzung Edition CSV Hückeswagen.

The New Testament in the Original Greek. Byzantine Text Form, 2005. Compiled and arranged by Robinson, Maurice A. & Pierpont, William G. BibleWorks 9 von 2013. [Dt. Das Neue Testament im Original Griechisch. Byzantinische Textform.]. BYZ

Scofield-Bibel. Revidierte Elberfelder Übersetzung mit Einleitungen, Erklärungen und Ketten-An­gaben 1992. Scofield, Cyrus I. (Hg.). Autorisierte deutsche Übersetzung Gertrud Was­serzug-Traeder. Wuppertal-Zürich: Brockhaus.

Unrevidierte Elberfelder Bibel (ELO) [1855] 1905. Haan: Brockhaus.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 1931. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) 1987. Kirchenrat des Kantons Zürich (Hg.). 19. Aufl. Zürich: Verlag der Zürcher Bibel.

Zürcher Bibel (ZUR) [1931] 2007. Hrsg. vom Kirchenrat der Evangelisch-reformierten Landeskirche des Kantons Zürich. Zürich: Genossenschaft Verlag der Zürcher Bibel beim Theologischen Verlag Zürich.

 

 

 

Internationale Bibeln und Grundtexte

American Standard Version [1901] 1988. The Holy Bible based upon the Hebrew Masoretic text for the OT and upon the Westcott-Hort Greek text for the NT. Oklahoma City: Ellis Enterprises. (ASV) (Siehe RSV / NRSV)

Bibel 2011. Oslo: Norwegian Bible Society.

Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia [1909] 1990. Hg. R. Kittel, unter Mitarbeit von A. Alt, O. Eißfeldt, P. Kahle. 4. verb. Aufl. verkleinerte Ausga­be. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia [1909] 1990. Kittel, Rudolf (ed.) in assistance of Alt, A., Eißfeldt, O. & Kahle, P. 4th rev. ed. Small edition. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (Hg.) 2011. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Reihe: bibel digital, Stuttgart 2011.

Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (Hg.) 2011. Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Reihe: bibel digital, Stuttgart 2011; sowie Hardmeier, Ch., Talstra, E. & Groves, A. (Hgg.) 2009. Stuttgarter Elektronische Studienbibel (SESB) 3.0. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Hardmeier, Ch., Talstra, E. & Groves, A. (Hgg.) 2009. Stuttgarter Elektronische Studienbibel (SESB) 3.0. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

EasyEnglish Bible 2019. Missioassist – Wycliff Global Alliance. Online:URL: https://www.easyenglish.bible [Stand 2019-12-30]. LeichteSprache, EinfacheSprache, Leichte Sprache, Einfache Sprache

Hendel, R. 2008. The Oxford Hebrew Bible. Prologue to a New Critical Edition. VT 58, 324-351.

Schenker, A. & u. a. (Hgg.) 2004-. Biblia Hebraica Quinta. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. (bisher erschienen: Fascicle 18: General Introduction and Megilloth, 2004; Fascicle 20: Ezra and Nehemiah, 2006; Fascicle 5: Deuteronomy, 2007; Fascicle 17: Proverbs, 2008; Fascicle 13: The Twelve Minor Prophets, 2010; Fascicle 7: Judges, 2011).

Freedman, David Noel, Beck, Astrid B. & Sanders, James A. (eds.) 1998. The Leningrad Codex. A Facsimile Edition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 4. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (Hgg.). Nestle-Aland 27. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2014. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 5. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2014. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, et al (ed.). 5. ed. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2013. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 28. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [Engl.: Novum Testamentum Greace 28th ed. Stuttgart: German Bible Society.].

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt et al. (eds.). Stuttgart: United Bible Societies and German Bible Society. (GNT – The Greek New Testament (GNT), Ed. by Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, and Allen Wikgren, in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Münster/Westphalia, Fourth Edition (with exactly the same text as the Nestle-Aland 27th Edition of the Greek New Testament), Copyright © 1966, 1968, 1975 by the United Bible Societies (UBS) and 1993, 1994 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), Stuttgart.)

Good News Bible: The Bible in Today’s English Version [1976] 2004. Nida, Eugen A. (ed.). New York: American Bible Society. (Also called Today’s English Version (TEV).) (GNB / GNV)

Göttinger Akademie der Wissenschaften (Hg.) 1926-. Septuaginta. Vetus Testamentum Graecum, Göttingen. (noch nicht abgeschlossene Septuaginta-Ausgabe in Einzelbänden).

Fox, Everett 1995. The Five Books of Moses. The Schocken Bible 1. New York: Schocken.

King James Version [1611] 2008. With Apocrypha. Oxford: Oxford University Press. (KJV).

New English Translation 2005. Online: URL: http://netbible.com/content/download [accessed 2014-07-28]. (NET)

New King James Version 1982. Nashville: Thomas Nelson. (NKJV)

New Living Translation [1996] 2004. The Holy Bible. Wheaton: Tyndale Charitable Trust.

Revised Standard Version [1946] 1973. The Holy Bible. Authorized revision of the American Standard Version. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. (RSV) (s. ASV und NRSV)

The English Darby Bible [1884/1890] 1997. Darby, John Nelson. Ontario: Woodside Fellowship of Ontario.

The New International Version [1973] 1984 (NIV). Grand Rapids: Zondervan. (NIV / NIB) New International Bible

The New Revised Standard Version 1989. New York: National Council of the Churches of Christ in the United States of America. (s. ASV / RSV )

Vulgate 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: German Bible Society.

Vulgata [1969] 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Lateinische Vulgata). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. (VUL – Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, Vulgate Latin Bible (VUL), Ed. by R. Weber, B. Fischer, J. Gribomont, H.F.D. Sparks, and W. Thiele [at Beuron and Tuebingen] Copyright © 1969, 1975, 1983 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society).

Skandinavische Bibeln (Dänemark, Norwegen, Schweden, FIN, Island)

1.Dänemark – Denmark

Hans Tausens Oversæettelse of De fern Mosebøger [Die Übersetzung der Fünf Bücher Mose von Hans Tausen; 1535] (udg. af [hg. von] Det danskske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab; København, 1932).

Christian den Tredies Bibel. Den første danske Bibel [Die Bibel des Christian III. Die erste dänische Bibel; 1550]. Facsimile-Udgave (udg. af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab; København, 1928).

Biblia Det er/Den gantske Hellige Scrifft/paa Danske (København, 1589) [Die Bibel des Frederik II.]

Biblia, Paa Danske / Det er / Den gantske hellige scriftis Bøgger (København, 1607 [Die Bibel Resens].

Biblia Det er/Den gantske Hellige Scrifft/paa Danske (Kobenhavn, 1633) [Die Bibel des Christian IV.]

Biblia, Paa Danske / Det er: Den gandske hellige Skriftis Bøgger (København, 1647) [Die resen-svaningsche Bibel].

Biblia, det er den gantske Hellige Skrift, paa Danske (København, 1670).

Biblia, Det er Den gandske Hellige Skriftes Bøger (5. Aufl.; København, 1670) Die Bibel des Christian VI.]

Biblia, det er den ganske Hellige Skrifts Bøger (16. Aufl.; København, 1819) [Die 1819-Übersetzung].

Prøver af en ny dansk Oversættelse af det Gamle Testamente (København, 1845) [Proben einer Neuübersetzung des Alten Testaments].

Bibelen, det er: den ganske Hellige Skrifts Bøger (København, 1871) [Die 1871-Übersetzung].

Bibelen, det er den ganske hellige Skrifts Bøger (København, 1907) [Die 1907-Übersetzung].

Bibelen. Den hellige Sknfts kanoniske Bøger (København, 1948) [Die 1948-Übersetzung].

Salmer, Davids. Det gamle Testamente i ny oversættelse (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1980).

Det Nye Testamente i ny oversættelse (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1989).

Bibelen. Den hellige Skrifts kanoniske Boger. Autoriseret af Hendes Majestæt Dronning Margrethe II (København: Det danske Bibelselskab, 1993).

Bidrag til den danske bibels Historie [Beiträge zur Geschischichte der dänischen Bibel] (Festskrift udg. av [hg. von] Aarhus universitet; København, 1950).

Ejrnaes, B., Skrifisynet igennem den danske bibels historic [Das Schriftverständnis durch die Geschichte der Dänischen Bibel] (Forum for bibelsk eksegese 6; København: Museum Tusculanums Forlag, 1995).

Molde, B., Källorna till Christian III:s bibel 1550: Textfilologiska studier [Die Quellen zur Bibel des Christian III von 1550: Textphilologische Studien] (Diss. Lund; Lund: Gleerup, 1949).

Munksgaard, E., Den forste danske Bibel og dens Historie [Die erste dänische Bibel und ihre Geschichte] (København, 1928).

Noack, B., »Arbejdet med Bibeloversættelsen i Danmark i nyere Tid« [Die Arbeit mit der Bibelübersetzung in Dänemark in neuerer Zeit], Svensk Exegetisk Årsbok 9 (1944), 35-48.

Otzen, P., Hvorledes danskernefik deres bibler: De danske bibeloversættelsers historie i grundrids [Wie die Dänen ihre Bibeln erhalten haben: Grundriß der Geschichte der dänischen Bibelübersetzungen] (København, 1949 [Lit.]).

Torm, F., Om Prøveoversættelsen of Det nye Testamente [Von der Probeübersetzung des Neuen Testaments] (København: Gads Forlag, 1943).

Vogel, P. H., »Dänische und Norwegische Bibelübersetzungen seit der Reformation«, Internationale kirchliche Zeitschrift 44 (1954), 235-240.

2. Finnland

Mikael Agricolan teokset 1-4 [Mikael Agricolas Werke 1-4; Faksimile] (Helsinki, 1987).

Biblia, Se on: Coco Pyhä Ramattu, Suomexi [Die Bibel, das ist: Die Ganze Heilige Schrift, auf Finnisch] (Stockholm, 1642) [Faksimile: Porvoo, 1985].

Biblia, Se on: Koko Pyhä Raamattu, Suomexi (Turku, 1776).

Biblia, Se on: Koko Pyhä Raamattu, Suomexi (Turku, 1852).

Biblia, Se on Koko Pyhä Raamattu. Wanhaja Uusi Testamentti. Alkuraamattuin jdlkeen uudestansa ojennettu [Die Bibel, das ist Die Ganze Heilige Schrift. Altes und Neues Testament. Nach den Urbibeln neu ausgerichtet] (Helsinki, 1859).

Pyhä Raamattu. Vanha Testamentti yhdennentoista, vuonna 1933 pidetyn yleisen Kirkolliskokouksen kdytdntoon ottamcna suomennos. Uusi Testamentti kahdennen toista, vuonna 1938 pidetyn KirkoUiskokouksen kdytdntoon ottama suomennos [Die Heilige Bibel. Das Alte Testament, von der elften allgemeinen Synode im Jahre 1933 in Gebrauch genommen. Das Neue Testament, von der zwölften allgemeinen Synode im Jahre 1938 in Gebrauch genommen] (Sortavala, 1938).

Uusi testamentti nykysoumeksi [Das Neue Testament im populären Finnisch] (Pieksamaki, 1972).

Pyhä Raamattu. Vanha Testamenti. Uusi Testamenti. Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon kirkolliskokouksen vuonna 1992 käyttöön ottama suomennos [Die Heilige Bibel. Das Alte Testament. Das Neue Testament. Finnische Übersetzung der finnisehen evangelisch-lutherischen Kirche, von der Synode des Jahres 1992 in Gebrauch genommen] (Mikkeli: Suomen Pibliaseura [Mikkeli: Die finnische Bibelgesellschaft], 1992).

Ikola, N., Ensimmäisen suomalaisen raamatun Historiaa [Zur Geschichte der ersten firmischen Bibel] (Turku, 1927).

Ikola, C, »Zur Geschichte der finnischen Bibel«, Jahrbuch für finnisch-deutsche Literaturbeziehungen 20 (1988), 16-25.

Toivanen, A., »Frågan om ekvivalensen i den nya finska bibelöversättningen« [Die Frage der Äquivalenz in der neuen finnischen Bibelübersetzung], Eripainos Teologinen Aikauskirja (1987), 239-245.

Toivanen, A., »A Bible Translation as the Communicator of Alien Culture«, Temenos 26 (1990), 129-137.

3. Island

Thetta er hid Nyja Testament Jesú Krists (Prentad í Hróarskeldu [Gedruckt in Roskilde [Dänemark]], 1540).

Bibíta, thad er øll heilög ritning útlögd á norrænu med formálum Doct. Martini Lutheran [Biblia, das ist die ganze heilige Schrift, übertragen ins Altnordische nach dem Vorbild Luthers] (Prentad á Hólum [Island], 1584) [die erste isländische Bibelausgabe, »die Gudbrands Bibel«; als die größte Kostbarkeit isländischen Buchgewerbs betrachtet].

Bibíta, thad er øll heilög ritning útlögd á norrænu … (Prentad ad nyju [aufs neue] á Hólum, 1644) [die 2. Bibelausgabe, »die Thorláks (d. i. Bischop Thorlákur Skúlason) Bibel«].

Bibíta, thad er øll Heilög Ritning (Hólum i Hjaltadal, 1728) [3. Ausgabe, »die Steins (d. i. Bischop Steinn Jónsson) Bibel«].

Bibíta, thad er øll Heilög Ritning útlögd á Norrænu (Prentud í Kaupmannahöfn [Kopöenhagen] 1747) [4. Ausgabe, »die Waisenhaus Bibel«].

Biblia, thad er Aull heilaug Ritning útlaugd á Íslensku (Kaupmannahöfn, 1813) [5. Ausgabe, »die Henderson Bibel«; Ebeneser Henderson war 1815 der Gründer der Bibelgesellschaft in Island].

Biblia, thad er Heilög Ritning (Videyjar Klaustri, 1841) [6. Ausgabe, »die Videy Bibel«; die erste Ausgabe der Isländischen Bibelgesellschaft; rev. Übersetzung].

Biblia, thad er øII Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1859) [7. Ausgabe, Nachdruck der 6. Ausgabe, »die Reykjavik Ausgabe«; die Apokryphen zum letzten Mal in in der isländischen Bibel gedruckt].

Biblia, thad er Heilög ritning (London, 1866) [8. Ausgabe, »die London Bibel«; auf Kosten der British and Foreign Bible Society gedruckt].

Biblia, thad er Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1912) [9- Ausgabe; neue Übersetzung aus den Originalsprachen, zuerst 1908 in Reykjavik gedruckt, sodann 1912 mit einigen Korrekturen nachgedruckt; Taschenausgabe 1914].

Biblian. Heilög ritning (Reykjavík, 1981 [10. Ausgabe; teilweise (im NT) neu übersetzt, teilweise revidiert; in Island gesetzt, aber in Stuttgart gedruckt].

Nielsson, H., »De islandske Bibeloversaettelser« [Die isländischen Bibelübersetzungen], Festskrifi til Frants Buhl (K0benhavn, 1925), 181-198.

Thorsteinsson, S. J., »Íslenskar biblíuthydingar« [Isländische Bibelübersetzungen], Vidförli: Timarit um gudfrædi og kirkjumál4/1-2 (1950), 48-85 [ausführliche Übersicht].

Bibliuthydingar í sögu og samtid [Bibelübersetzungen in Geschichte und Gegenwart] (Studia Theologica Islandica 4. Ritröd Gudfraedistofnunar; Reykjavik: Haskoli [Universität] islands, 1990) [Artikelsammlung zu isländischen Bibelübersetzungen; ausführliche Bibliographie].

Biblian og bókmentirnar (Studia Theologica Islandica 9. Ritröd Gudfradistofnunar; Reykjavík: Háskoli Íslands, 1994) [Artikelsammlung zur Bibel und Literatur Islands und zur Bibelübersetzung von 1728].

4. Norwegen

Stjom. Gammel-Norsk Bibelhistorie fra Verdens Skabelse til det babyloniske Fangenskab [Stjorn: Altnorwegische Bibel(geschichte) von der Schöpfung der Welt bis zur babylonischen Gefangenschaft] (utg. av [hg. von] Carl R. Unger; Christiania Oslo]: Feilberg & Landmark, 1853/1862).

Stjórn. AM227fol (ed. Jón Helgason; Corpus codicum islandicorum medii aevi, 20; København: Levin & Munksgaard, 1956).

Vor Herres og Frelseres Jesu Christi nye Testamente (Christiania [Oslo]: Det norske Bibelselskab, 1819).

Hærramek ja bæsstamek Jesus Kristus ådda testament (Kristianast, 1840) [die erste Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments in der Sprache der Lappen].

Bibelen eller Den Heilige Skrift, indeholdende det Gamle og Nye Testamentes kanoniske Bøger. Tilligemed det Gamle Testamentes apokryfiske Bøger (Christiania: Bibelselskabet, 1854).

Det nye Testamentet. Umsett fraa den greske Grunntekst paa norsk Folkemaal (Christiania: Det norske Samlaget, 1889) [die erste neunorwegische Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments].

Bibelen (Kristiania: Det norske Bibelselskab, 1891) [erste Bibelausgabe mit einer neuen Übersetzung des ATs aus den Grundtexten, angefangen in 1842, vollführt in 1888].

Det nye Testamentet Ny, gjennomsedd Utgaava av den fyrste Landsmaals-Umsetjing (Kristiania: Bibelselskabet, 1899) [rev. Ausgabe der neunorw. Übersetzung des NTs, nun von der Bibelgesellschaft herausgegeben].

Bibelen eller Den Heilige Skrift (Kristiania: Bibelselskabet, 1904) [erste vollständige norw. Übersetzung der ganzen Bibel aus dem Grundtext].

Bibelen eller Den heilage skrifti Dei kanoniske bøkerne i Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Oslo: Studentmaallaget i Oslo, 1921).

Bibelen eller Den Hellige Skrift. Det gamle og Det nye testamentes kanoniske bøker (Revidert oversettelse [rev. Übers.]; Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1930).

Bibelen eller Den heilage skrifti Dei kanoniske bøkene i Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Revidera umsetjing [rev. neunorw. Übers.]; Oslo:Bibelselskapet, 1938).

Det nye testamente. Oversattfor ungdom [NT für die Jugend übersetzt] (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1959) [die entsprechende neunorwegische Ausgabe in 1961].

Utvalg av Det gamle testamente. Oversettelse av 1966 [Auswahl aus dem AT] (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1966) [die entsprechende neunorw. Version: Utval or Det gamle testamentet Omsetjing frå 1966 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1966)].

Salmenes Bok. Ny oversettelse av 1967 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1967)

Det nye testamente, oversatt fra gresk av Erik Gunnes med innledninger og kommentarer (Oslo: Gyldendal Norsk Forlag, 1969) [private Übersetzung des katholisehen Paters E. G., mit Einleitungen und Kommentaren].

Det nye testamente på moderne norsk. Oversatt fra den greske grunntekst (Kristiansand: Acta Forlag, 1973) [private, konservative Übersetzung].

Det nye testamente. Ny oversettelse av 1975 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1975) [die entsprechende neunorwegische Version: Det nye testamentet. Ny omsetjing 1975 (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1975)].

Den Heilige Skrift Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamente (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1978; 2. utgave [2., leicht revidierte Ausgabe], 1985).

Den Heilage Skrifta Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamentet (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1978; 2. utgåva, 1985) [die neunorw. Version].

Bibelen, Den Hellige Skrift. Det gamle og det nye testamentes kanoniske bøker. Oversettelse 1988 (Oslo: Norsk Bibel, 1988) [private Übersetzung konservativen Charakters, die der 1930-Ausgabe der Bibelgesellschaft sehr ähnlich ist; von C. F. Wissløff, A. Berg und T. Gilbrant übersetzt].

Det gamle testamentes Apokryfiske Bøker. De deuterokanoniske bøker (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1988) [neue und ökumenische Übersetzung der Apokryphen, mit einem Anhang einiger Pseudepigraphischer Schriften].

Den Hellige Skrift Bibelen. Det gamle og Det nye testamente med de Apokryfiske bøker (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1994).

Salmenes Bok (Oslo: Bibelselskapet, 1995) [revidierte Ausgabe für den liturgisehen Gebrauch..

5. Schweden

Iesus. Thet Nyia Testamentit på Swensko (Stockholm, 1526).

Biblia/Thet är/All then Helgha Scrifft/på Swensko (Uppsala, 1540-1541) [die Gustav Vasa-Bibel].

Prof-Öfwersättning af thet Nya Testamentet, på Hans Kongl. Maj:ts Nådigsta befallning, författad af then till… förordnade särskilda Commission [Probe-Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments, auf Seiner Königl. Majestät Gnädigsten Befehl von der zu… besonders verordneten Kommission] (Stockholm, 1774-1780).

Nya Testamentet. Öfwersättning af Bibelkommissionen (Stockholm, 1873).

Nya Testamentet. Ny öfversättning med förklarande anmärkningar af [Neu« Übersetzung mit erklärenden Anmerkungen von] P. Waldenström (Stockholm, 1883-1894).

Bibeln eller Den Heliga Skrift. Gamla och Nya testamentet. De kanoniska bökkerna. Översättningen gillad och stadfäst av Konungen år 1917 [Die vom König im Jahr 1917 anerkannte und bestätigte Übersetzung] (Stockholm: Norstedt förlag, 1917).

Nya Testamentet på vår tids språk. De fyra evangelierna. Ny översättning med förklarande noter [Das neue Testament in der Sprache unserer Zeit. Die Evangelien. Neue Übersetzung mit erklärenden Noten; von D. Hedegård] (Stockholm: Evangeliska Fosterlandsstiftelsens Bokförlag, 1964).

Nya Testamentet på vår tids språk 2 [das übrige NT; von D. Hedegård] (Stockholm: Fosterlandsstifelsen, 1965).

Fem bibelböcker [Fünf Bibelbücher]. Gamla testamentet 1: Nyöversättningar Neuübersetzungen] (Stockholm: Liber Förlag, 1979).

Bibeln. Nya testamentet. Bibelkommissionens utgåva [Die Ausgabe der Bibelkommission] (Statens offentliga utredningar 1981: 56; 6; Stockholm: Utbildningsdepartementet, 1981).

Nio bibelböcker [Neun Bibelbücher]. Gamla testamentet 2, översatta av bibelkommissionen [von der Bibelkom. übersetzt] (Örebro: Libris, 1984).

 

Adell, A., Nya testamentet på svenska [Das Neue Testament auf Schwedisch] (Lund: Gleerup, 1936).

Eidem, E., Vår svenska bibel [Unsere schwedische Bibel] (Stockholm, 1923).

Gyllcnberg, R., Våra fäders bibel [Die Bibel unserer Väter] 1541-1941 (Stockholm: Förlaget Bro, 1941).

Hammer, H. B., Sveriges bibel [Die Bibel Schwedens] (Stockholm: Svenska Kyrkans diakonistyrelses bokförlag. 1942).

Nyöversättning av Nya testamentet Behov och principer [Neuübersetzung des Neuen Testaments. Bedürfnisse und Prinzipien]. Betänkande avgivet av 1963 års bibelkommitté [Gutachten des Bibelkomitees vom Jahr 1963] (Statens offentliga utredningar [SOU] 1968: 65; Stockholm, 1968)

[Lit. und ausführliche Übersicht der schwedischen Bibelübersetzungen].

Inför en ny bibelöversättning. Riktlinjer ochförslag [Vor einer neuen Bibelübersetzung. Richtlinien und Vorschlage]. Betänkande avgivet av 1971 års sakkunniga for översättning av Nya Testamentet [Gutachten der im Jahr 1971 ernannten Sachverständigen für die Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments] (Utbildningsdepartementet 1972:10; Stockholm, 1972).

Att översatta Gamla testamentet. Texter, kommentarer, riktlinjer [Das Alte Testament zu übersetzen. Texte, Kommentare, Richtlinien]. Betänkande av 1971 års bibelkommitte for Gamla testamentet [Gutachten des Bibelkomitees für das Alte Testament vom Jahr 1971] (SOU 1974:33; Stockholm, 1974).

 

 

 

 

Türkische Bibel

Müjde 1988. İncil “Müjde” İncil`in Çağdaş Türkçe Çevirisi. İstanbul: Kitabı Mukaddes Şirketi Yayınları. [Dt.: Müjde. Neue Moderne Übersetzung des Neuen Testaments.].

Kitabı Mukaddes [1941] 1995. İstanbul: Kitabı Mukaddes Şirketi.

Kutsal Kitap 2001. İstanbul: The Bible Society in Turkey.

Kutsal Kitap Yeni Çeviri / En Büyük Boy Ciltli 2002. İstanbul: Kitapyurdu. [Dt.: Neue Übersetzung des Heiligen Buches / Großformat 2002.].

Ekümenik Kutsal Kitap 2007. Online: http://www.hakikat.net/index.php. [Stand 2013-01-05].

İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Dt.: Das Neue Testament in alter Bedeutung. Die Worte des Matthäus.].

İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Engl.: The New Testament in Old Meaning. The words of Matthew.]. [Matta].

Halk Dilinde İncil 2012. İstanbul: Yeni Yaşam Yay Yayınları. [Translated from: The New Testament Easy Reader. Texas : World Bible Translation.].

 

List of modern Turkish BT publications (find a complete list in Privratsky):

1959 Gospels, Acts. Padua. Transl. by Jean Wendel, based on the Greek Merk text.

1989 New Testament [Repr 1990-1992).

1996 New Testament (revised). TBS, Istanbul. Translated into colloquial Turkish by a committee including Thomas Cosmades (Evangelical Alliance), Behnan Konutgan, Ali Şimşek (Translation Trust), Mahmut (=David) Solgun (Translation Trust). BK and MS were TBS, AS was TT. Thomas Cosmades’ NT was published by TBS.

1977 [1972] Mark (revised) BFBS, Istanbul. Transl. by Vedat Örs, assisted by a committee, including Jean Wendel, Riza Ünal, C. R. Avery, and Paul H. Nilson; based on the 1959 Wendel version.

1978 Mark BFBS, Istanbul. Transl. by V. Örs, assisted by Peter Hopkins, Mrs. Julian = Pamela Richardson, and a review committee.

1979 John. Istanbul. Transl. by a committee under the guidance of Denis Alexander and Ali Şimşek; based on the English Living version.

1987 New Testament [Repr +1989, +1994] Translation Trust, London.

2003. Bible, DC BS in Turkey, Istanbul. The New Turkish Translation prepared by a committee of the BS in Turkey (OT) and the Translation Trust (NT, DC). TBS holds the copyright for the DC. This translation aimed at a “middle of the road” style hopefully accessible to all kinds of Turks, but its avoidance of Arabic-based theological vocabulary made it less appealing to many more Islamised Turks.

2005 New Testament. 2008 +Bible. WTBTS. New York. Transl. by the WTBTS based on the English version.

2011 İncili-i Şerif’in Yüce Anlamı 2011. Havari Matta’nın Kaleminden. Orijinal Metin ve Kelime Kelime Türkçe Çevirisi ile birlikte. İstanbul: Sabeel Media. [Engl.: The New Testament in Old Meaning. The words of Matthew.]. [Matta].

2012 Halk Dilinde İncil. HADİ. İstanbul: Yeni Yaşam Yayınları. [Translated from: The New Testament Easy Reader. Texas : World Bible Translation.].

 

 

 

 

Computerhilfsmittel Bibelexgese

BibleWorks 2012. Version 9.0. Norfolk: BibleWorks. sales@bibleworks.com, support@­bible­works.com. [CD-ROM].

Brockhaus multimedial premium 2007. Premium edition. Mannheim: Brockhaus. [CD-ROM].

Einheitsübersetzung der Heiligen Schrift [1980] 1997. Elbikon für Windows 5.0. Stuttgart: Katholische Bibelanstalt. [CD-ROM].

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Neuer sprachlicher Schlüssel zum NT. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Lexikon zur Bibel. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen.

Field Linguist’s Toolbox 1.5 2006. Dallas: SIL International/UBS. [CD-ROM]. Und Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/computing/toolbox/ [Stand 2009-06-02].

Grollier encyclopedia 1994. [CD-ROM].

Murat – Sanders 2004. e- Grosswörterbuch 4.0. Berlin: Langenscheidt. [CD-ROM].

Paratext 6.0 2003. New York: United Bible Societies. [CD-ROM]. Und Online: URL: http://­paratext.­ubs-translations.org/Home.html [Stand 2009-06-02].

redhouse 2002. Turkish-English, English-Turkish Dictionary, Vers. 1.52, Ankara: SEV Matbaacılık. [CD-ROM].

Reiling, J. & Swellengebel, J.L. [1993] 2003. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of Luke. Translators Workplace 4.0. Dallas: SIL International/UBS. [CD-ROM].

Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (RGG3): Handwörterbuch für Thologie und Religions­wis­sen­schaft. [1956] 1965 1998. 4. ungekürzte Fassung. Berlin: Directmedia. (Buch­form in Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck). [CD-ROM].

Shoebox 5.0 2001. Dallas: SIL International/UBS. [CD-ROM]. Und Online: URL: http://­scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=SHUtils-manual [Stand 2009-06-02].

SESB [2004] 2010. Stuttgarter Elektronische Studien Bibel. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [CD-ROM].

Toolbox 1.6.1 2013. Dallas: SIL International/UBS. [CD-ROM].

Translators Workplace 4.0 2003. Dallas: SIL International/UBS. [CD-ROM].

 

Computerhilfsmittel Bibelübersetzung, Übersetzung und Linguistik

Alabau, V., Buck, C., Carl, M., Casacuberta, F., García-Martínez, M., Germann, U., … Tsoukala, C. (2014). CASMACAT: A Computer-assisted Translation Workbench. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL) (pp. 25–28). Gothenburg, Sweden.

Barrachina, S., Bender, O., Casacuberta, F., Civera, J., Cubel, E., Khadivi, S., … Vidal, E. (2009). Statistical approaches to computer-assisted translation. Computational Linguistics, 35(1), 3–28.

Brown, P. F., Della Pietra, S. A., Della Pietra, V. J., & Mercer, R. L. (1993). The Mathematics of Statistical Machine Translation: Parameter Estimation. Computational Linguistics, 19(2), 263–311.

Costa-jussà, M. R., & Fonollosa, J. A. R. 2015. Latest trends in hybrid machine translation and its applications. Computer Speech & Language, 32/1, 3–10.

Damien, Daspit 2017. A New Approach to Computer-assisted Bible Translation. Online: URL https://docs.google.com/document/d/1F0­JpQgB47rJDPBrpxU1BVaxO­5cB­MZqO6AzkSLbMdJNY/edit# [accessed 2019-10-20).

Eisele, A., Federmann, C., Saint-Amand, H., Jellinghaus, M., Herrmann, T., & Chen, Y. (2008). Using Moses to Integrate Multiple Rule-Based Machine Translation Engines into a Hybrid System. In Proceedings of the Third Workshop on Statistical Machine Translation (pp. 179–182). Columbus, USA.

Formiga, L., Hernández, A., Mariño, J. B., & Monte, E. (2012). Improving English to Spanish Out-of-Domain Translations by Morphology Generalization and Generation. In Proceedings of the Monolingual Machine Translation Workshop (pp. 6–16). San Diego, USA.

Koehn, P. (2009). A Web-Based Interactive Computer Aided Translation Tool. In Proceedings of the ACL-IJCNLP 2009 Software Demonstrations (pp. 17–20). Suntec, Singapore.

Koehn, P., Och, F. J., & Marcu, D. (2003). Statistical Phrase-Based Translation. In Proceedings of the Joint Conference on Human Language Technologies and the Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics (HLT/NAACL) (pp. 48–54). Edmonton, Canada.

Levenberg, A. D. (2011). Stream-based Statistical Machine Translation. University of Edinburgh.

Lockwood, Ron M. 2015. A Linguist-Friendly Machine Translation System for Low-Resource Languages. University of Washington.

Mathur, P., Cettolo, M., & Federico, M. (2013). Online Learning Approaches in Computer Assisted Translation. In Proceedings of the 14th Machine Translation Summit, Workshop on Post-editing Technology and Practice (pp. 301–308). Nice, France.

Maxwell, M. (1994). Parsing Using Linearly Ordered Phonological Rules. In Computational Phonology: First Meeting of the ACL Special Interest Group in Computational Phonology (pp. 59–70). Somerset, NJ.

Maxwell, M. (1991). Phonological Analysis and Opaque Rule Orders. In Proceedings of the Second International Workshop on Parsing Technologies (pp. 110–116).

Ortiz-Martínez, D. (2011). Advances in Fully-Automatic and Interactive Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia.

Ortiz-Martínez, D., & Casacuberta, F. (2014). The New Thot Toolkit for Fully-Automatic and Interactive Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the 14th Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (EACL) (pp. 45–48). Gothenburg, Sweden.

Ortiz-Martínez, D., García-Varea, I., & Casacuberta, F. (2010). Online Learning for Interactive Statistical Machine Translation. In Proceedings of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics – Human Language Technologies (NAACL-HLT) (pp. 546–554). Los Angeles.

Riding, J. D. (2008). Statistical Glossing – Language Independent Analysis in Bible Translation. In Proceedings of Translation and the Computer 30.

Sánchez-Cartagena, V. M., Pérez-Ortiz, J. A., & Sánchez-Martínez, F. (2016). Integrating Rules and Dictionaries from Shallow-Transfer Machine Translation into Phrase-Based Statistical Machine Translation. Artificial Intelligence Research, 55, 17–61.

Weber, D. J. (1989). A Morphological Parser for Linguistic Exploration (Work Papers of the Summer Institute of Linguistics No. 33).

Weber, D. J., McConnel, S. R., Black, H. A., & Buseman, A. (1990). STAMP: a Tool for Dialect Adaptation (Occasional Publications in Academic Computing No. 15).

 

Adapt It. URL: https://adapt-it.org [accessed 2020-01-03].

Bloom. URL: https://bloomlibrary.org/landing [accessed 2020-01-10].

CARLA. URL: https://software.sil.org/carla/ [accessed 2020-01-03].

European General Data Protection Regulation 2018. https://gdpr-info.eu [accessed 2019-12-30].

Fieldworks Language Explorer. URL: https://software.sil.org/fieldworks/ [accessed 2020-01-03].

Scripture App Builder. URL: http://software.sil.org/downloads/r/scriptureapp­builder/­Scripture-App-Builder-02-Building-Apps.pdf [accessed 2020-01-10].

 

 

 

Internetseiten

A Brief History of SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/sil/­history.­htm [Stand 2009-02-06].

Aksoy, Serap 1995. The GAP Project in Southeastern Turkey: The Potential for Emergence of Diseases. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol1no2/aksoy.htm [Stand 2010-08-18].

American Anthropological Association [1971] 1986. Statements on Ethics: Principles of Professional Responsibility Adopted by the Council of the American Anthropological Association. Airlington. Online: URL: http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/­ethst­mnt.htm [accessed 2010-04-29].

American Anthropological Association 1998. Code of Ethics of the American Anthropological Association. American Anthropological Association Statement on Ethnography and Institutional Review Boards. Airlington. Online: URL: http://www.aaanet.org/committees/ethics/ethcode.htm also http://www.aaanet.org/­committees/­ethics/­ethicscode.pdf ­[PDF-File] [accessed 2010-04-29].

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Arts & Humanities Research Council 2010. Between Kismet and Karma: South Asian Women Artists Respond to Conflict. Online: URL: http://www.ahrc.ac.uk/News/Latest/­Pages/kismetand­karma.aspx [Stand 2010-06-07].

Asatrian, Garnik Serobi 1995. Dımlī. Encyclopedia Iranica. Online: URL: http://www.iranica.com/­articles/­v7/­v7f4/­v7f447.html [accessed 2011-06-18].

Asatrian, Garnik Serobi 1995. Dımli. Encyplopedia Iranica. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.iranica.com/articles/dimli# [Stand 2011-08-16].

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Azis, Alis 2006. The Kurdish Platform. Online: URL: http://www.ike-europa.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=27 [Stand 2010-06-01).

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Bates, Elizabeth, Thal, Donna, & Finlay, Barbara 1992. Early language development and its neural cor­relates, in Rapin I. & Segalowitz S. (Hgg.): Handbook of neuropsychology: Child Neuro­­psychology, Vol. 7, 69-110. Amsterdam: Elsevier. Online: URL: http://crl.­ucsd.­edu/bates/papers/pdf/rapin1999.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2008-08-19].

Bauer, Martin 2010. Goldene Horde. Online: URL: http://www.uni-protokolle.de/Lexikon/Goldene_Horde.html [Stand 2010-05-20]. [Engl.: Golden Hord.].

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Bauer, Martin 2010. Goldene Horde. Online: URL: http://www.uni-protokolle.de/Lexikon/Goldene_Horde.html [accessed 2010-05-20].

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Berndt, Eva 2005. Biblia Sacra 1466. Online: URL: http://www.eva-berndt-berlin.com/CD%2000001.htm [Stand 2009-05-13].

Beschluss der EKD vom 11. November 2015. Martin Luther und die Juden – Notwendige Erinnerung zum Reformationsjubiläum. Online: URL: https://www.ekd.de/synode2015_bremen/beschluesse/­s15_04_­iv_7_­kund­gebung_martin_­luther_und_die_­ju­d­e­­n­.­­html Stand 2016-10-30]. (Antisemitismus, Antijudaismus, EKD, evangelische Kirche)

Bible Translation International Conference Training for Translation 2007. Online: URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/show_product.asp?isbn=F-00000-124 [Stand 2009-02-10].

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Bolten, Jürgen 1985. Die Hermeneutische Spirale. Überlegungen zu einer integrativen Literatur­theo­rie, in: Poetica 17, H. 3/4. Online: URL: http://www.uni-essen.­de/­lite­ra­tur­wissenschaft-aktiv/Vorlesungen/hermeneutik/hzirkel.htm [Stand 2009-06-05].

Burghardt, Franz Josef 2006. Ausländer nach Staatsangehörigkeiten 2006. Stand 31.12.2006. Online: URL: http://­www.­aus­laender-statistik.de/ [Stand 2008-09-19]. [Engl.: Foreigners following Citizenship.].

Campus Crusade for Christ 2003. Der Jesus Film. Online: URL: http://www.jesus­.who.­­org/­german/background.htm [Stand 2009-05-18].

Catholic Biblical Federation 2008. Scriptures reading Report (Vol.1a) – Comparison of 12 national cases in three continents – base population. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.c-b-f.org/ documents/survey_population_general.pdf [PDF-File] [accessed 2013-01-25].

Chafe, Wallace 2003. The Translation Paradox, in Baumgarten, Nicole, Böttger u. a. (eds.): Über­setzen, Interkulturelle Kommunikation, Spracherwerb und Sprachvermittlung – das Leben mit mehreren Sprachen. Festschrift für Juliane House zum 60. Geburts­tag, 1-10. Zeit­schrift für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht [Online] 8:2/3. Online: URL: http://zif.spz.tu-darmstadt.de/jg-08-2-3/beitrag/­Chafe­1.htm [Stand 2009-03-06].

Chatzitheodorou, Ilias 2001. Problems of Bible Translation. Translation Journal 5/4. Online: URL: http://www.bokorlang.com/journal/18bible.htm [Stand 2012-06-12].

Christoffel Blindemission 2017. Auf den Spuren von Ernst Jakob Christoffel. Online: URL: https://www.cbm.de/static/medien/Auf_den_Spuren_von_Christoffel.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2017-10-30].

Code of Professional Conduct and Business Practices. American Translators Association. Online: URL: http://www.atanet.org//­membership/code_of_­profes­sion­al_­­conduct.­­­php [Stand 2009-06-06].

Conway, Susan 2002. Roots of the Church Growth Movement. Online: URL: http:­//­­www.crossroad.to/Quotes/Church/Conway/church-growth/cgm-roots.htm [Stand­ 2009-01-05].

Daniels, Gene & Allen, Don 2011. Fruitful Practices: Studying How God Is Working in the Muslim World. EMQ 47/4, 412-418. Wheaton: evangelical press association. Auch Online: URL: http://www.emisdirect.com/­emq/issue-317/2602 [Stand 2011-10-08].

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Diedrich, Hans-Christian 2004. Potsdam ehrt „Schutzengel der Armenier“. Glaube in der 2. Welt, 25-26. Und Online: URL: http://www.­kirchen.ch/­g2w/Archiv/­0401.htm [Stand 2008-08-11].

Die Verfassung der Republik Türkei vom 7. November 1982. Online: URL: http://www.­ver­fassungen.de/tr/tuerkei82.htm [2009-07-03].

Dimle. Online: URL: http://www.iranica.com­/articles­/v7/­v7f4/v7f447.html [Stand 2008-12-10].

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DISA 2012. Diyarbakır Sosyal ve Siyasal Araştırmalar Derneği’nin Activities in Research on social Studies of the Kurdish people. Online: URL: http://www.disa.org.tr/activities.html [accessed 2013-03-23]. [Engl.: Diyarbakır Social and Equality Researching Association.].

Dooley, Robert A. 2009. Relevance Theory and Discourse Analysis: Complementary Approaches for Translator Training. Dallas: GIAL. Online: URL: http://www.gial.edu/GIALens/vol2-3/Dooley-Relevance-theory.pdf [accessed 2013-04-14].

Ebertshäuser, Rudolf 2006a. Gottes Wort oder Menschenwort: Moderne Bibelübersetzungen unter der Lupe: Von der „Guten Nachricht“ bis zur „Volxbibel“. Oerlinghausen: Betanien. Und Online: URL: http://www.das-wort-der-wahrheit.de/B3-moderne-bibel­uebers-4-A4.doc [Stand 2009-01-03].

Ebertshäuser, Rudolf 2006b. Zur geistlichen Beurteilung der modernen Übertragungen. Und Online: URL: http://www.das-wort-der-wahrheit.de­/000001­9867­0088­3­0­7/­index.­html­ [Stand 2009-01-03].

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Encyclopedia Iranica 2007. Dimle. Online: URL: http://www.iranica.com­/articles­/v7/­v7f4/v7f447.html [Stand 2008-12-10].

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Eugene A. Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship o. J. Brief Biography of Eugene Nida. Online: URL: http://www.nidainstitute.org­/vsItem­Display.­dsp­&­object­ID­=092­0A8­17­-28AA-4D6F-9B9F70012­F­E3A­4­6­2&method=display. [Stand 2009-02-29].

Eugene A. Nida Institute for Biblical Scholarship o. J. Milestones in the Life of Eugene A. Nida. Online: URL: http://www.nidainstitute.org/vsItem­Display.dsp&­object­ID=­C0­778174-CF8D-4949-­8AC5B837C01C844E&method=display. [Stand 2009-02-29].

European Stability Initiative 2011. Murder in Anatolia: Christian Misionaries and Turkish Ultranationalism. Berlin: ESI. Und Online im Internet: URL: http://www.esiweb.­org/index.­php?lang=de&id=67&newsletter_ID=53 [accessed 2011-02-04].

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Felber, Stefan 2003. Das verführerische Versprechen der Verständlichkeit. Kritische Anfragen an mode­rne Bibelübersetzungen. (Gemeindeabende am 19. und 26. Mai und 2. Juni 2003). Und Online: URL: http://www.­bibelueber­setzungen.­ch/fisch/­felb3abend.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-02].

Felber, Stefan 2006. Wort Gottes und Geschäft – oder: Ist die Bibel das Buch aller Welt? dr Güggel: Mitteilungsblatt für den Kirchgemeindekreis Riehen-Dorf, März/April 2006, 2-4. Und Online: URL: http://www.bibel­ueber­setzungen­.ch­/fisch­/wort­gottes­und­geschaeft.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-02].

Fenffe, Gregor Delvaux de 2009. The Mao Bible. Online: URL: http://www.planet-wissen.de/laender_leute/china/mao_zedong/china_mao_bib… [Stand 2009-06-01].

Findley, Carter V. 1979. Sir James W. Redhouse (1811-1892): The Making of a Perfect Orientalist? Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 99/4, 573-600. Winona Lake: American Oriental Society. Und Online: URL: http://www.­jstor.org/­stable/­pdfplus/­601447?tokenId=9FZjyTSxA3eIChf6MVPy [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2008-11-04].

Fogel, Joshua A. o. J. Recent Translation Theory and Linguistic Borrowing in the Modern Sino-Chinese Cultural Context. Online: URL: http://www.indiana.edu­/~easc2/­resour­ces/working_paper/no_frame_2b_recen.htm [Stand 2009-03-06].

Forrest, Jay N. 2003. Why a Literal Translation. Online: URL: http://web.archive.­org­/web/20030626112812/http://www.jayforrest.org/­cd/­literal.­htm [Stand 2014-03-11].

Freiburger Rundbrief 117/120, Jahrgang XXXI 1979. Zur Erneuerung des Verhältnisses von Christen und Juden Beschluss 37 der Landessynode der Evange­lischen Kirche im Rheinland, Bad Neuenahr, 11. Januar 1980. Beiträge zur christlich-jüdischen Begegnung, 15-17. Freiburg: Ökumenisch-Theologische Forschungsgemeinschaft in Israel und Freiburger Rundbrief. Und Online: URL: https://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:7060/datastre…­content [Stand 2016-10-30]. (Antisemitismus, Antijudaismus, EKD, evangelische Kirche)

Freiburger Rundbrief, Neue Folge, 1999: Christen und Juden: Erklärung der Evangelisch-Luthe­r­ischen Kirche in Bayern (ursprünglich Nürnberg, 24. Novem­ber 1998). (Antisemitismus, Antijudaismus, EKD, evangelische Kirche)

Gebiet und Bevölkerung – Ausländische Be­völker­­ung. Online: URL: http://www.­statis­tik-­portal.­de/Statistik-Portal/de_jb01_­jahr­tab2.­asp. [Stand 2009-01-26].

Gippert, Jost 2005. Stammbaum der iranischen Sprachen. Online: URL: http://­www.­­zazaki.de/deutsch/gippert-stammbaum%20iraniische%­20sprach­en-­geradlinige­%20­ent­wick­­lung.jpg [Stand 2012-02-18].

Gordon, Raymond G. Jr. (ed.) 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International und Online: URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/print.asp [Stand 2009-05-20].

Gordon, Raymond G. Jr. (ed.) 2005. Dimli – A Language of Turkey (Asia): diq, in Ethnologue: Languages of the World. 15th ed. Dallas: SIL International und Online: URL: http://www.ethnologue.com/­show_­language.asp?code=diq [Stand 2009-05-20].

Government Turkiye 2006. Cermik. Online: URL: http://cermik.gov.tr/ [2008-12-10].

Güvenç, Bozkurt 2010. Das Bild des “Türken” in Europa. Yeni Vatan Gazetesi. Wien. Und Online: URL: http://www.yenivatan.com/Das-Bild-des-Tuerken.60.0.html [Stand 2010-05-03]. (english: Güvenç, Bozkurt 2010. Europes picture of the „Turk“. Yeni Vatan Gazetesi. Vienna. And Online in the Internet: URL: http://www.yenivatan.com/Das-Bild-des-Tuerken.60.0.html [accessed 2010-05-03]. [Engl.: The image of the “Turk” in Europe.].

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Gutt, Ernst-August 2004. Applications of Relevance Theory to Translation – a Concise Overview. Online: URL: homepage.ntlworld.com/ernst-august.gutt/ 2004%20­Ap­pli­cations­%20of%20RT%20to%20translation.d [2009-02-119]. (Thesenpapier).

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Hejaro 2007. Kurdische Dialekte/Lehceyên Kurdî. Online: URL: http://pauker.at/­VIP/Hejaro/kate_de/4495 [accessed 2008-09-28]. [Engl. The Kurdish Dialects].

Hennerbichler, Ferdinand 2004. Die Kurden. Mosonmagyarovar: Edition fhe. Und Online: URL: http://www.fhe.cc/html/DieKurden-fhe-Sprache.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-16].

Hieronymus (Kirchenvater). Online: URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/­Hiero­ny­mus_­(Kirchenvater) [Stand 2009-07-05].

Holzhausen, Andreas 2002. Volk am Abgrund – Die Binumarien. Online: URL: http://­www.­wycliff.de/neu/artikel/binumarien.pdf. [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-05-18].

Holzhausen, Andreas 2003. Wie schreibt man das auf Deutsch? Online: URL: http://­www.­­wycliff­.de/neu/artikel/wie_schreibt_man_das.pdf [PDF-Datei] ­[Stand ­­2009-05-18].

Human Rights Education Associates 2006. Turkey: A Minority Policy of Systematic Negation. 11 Octo­ber 2006. Online: URL: http://www.hrea.org/lists/wcar/­markup/­msg00­27­6.­html [Stand 2008-11-17].

Hürriyet Gazete Haberleri 2008. DTP challenges PM in Kurdish. İstanbul. Online: URL: http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/domestic/11076708.asp?scr=1 (accessed 2010-06-01).

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Informery 2016. Famous Leaders with Disabilities. Online: URL: http://infomory.com/famous/famous-leaders-with-disabilities-2/ [Stand 2016-07-26]. (Behinderung; behinderte BerühmtheitenBehinderung; Behinderungkritik)

Institut für Islamfragen. Islam und christlicher Glaube. Online: URL: http://www.­­islam­­-Institut.de/Zeitschrift.20.0.html [Stand 2009-05-18].

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Jerry, T. O. 1999. A Bible Storying Manual. Online: URL: http://www.chronological­­­­­bible­storying.com/short/cbs_short_forward.htm [Stand 2013-10-18].

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Kaplan, Ismail 2005. Grundlagen des alevitischen Glaubens. Online: URL: http://­www.­­­alevi.­com/alevitischelehre0+M5e04df01263.html [Stand 2008-09-29].

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Kohn, Daniela & Kohn, Gabriel o. J. Semiotik und Äquivalenztheorie: Eine interdisziplinäre Studie zur Adäquatheit semiotischer Instrumente bei der Beschreibung des Äqui­valenz­phänomens. Online: URL: http://www.e-scoala.ro/germana/­kohn.­­html [Stand 2009-03-12].

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Krifka, Manfred 2006. Die klassische Implikaturtheorie von H. P. Grice. Online: URL: amor.rz.hu-berlin.de/~h2816i3x/Pragmatik_04_Implikaturen.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2008-10-24].

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Lezgin, Roşan 2011. Mewlidê Ehmedê Xası. Online: URL: http://www.zazaki.­net/­haber/­mewlid-neb-y-ehmed-xas-57.htm. [accessed 2013-05-19].

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Morea, Scott A. o. J. The Homogeneous Unit Principle. Online: URL: http:// www.­wheaton.­edu/intr/Moreau/courses/545/­notes/­HUP.­PDF [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2008-08-29].

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New Testament Portions 2009. Mıjdiyanê ‘Elay. Online: URL: http://­www.­kurdish-bible.org/zaz/zazaki-01.htm [ Stand 2009-02-24].

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Olcott, Henry S. 1908. The Buddhist Catechism. Online: URL: http://www.sacred-texts.com/bud/tbc/tbc13.htm#page_111, V-VI [accessed 2016-07-18]. (Buddhismus)

Orientdienst e.V. 2007. Die Quellen des Koran. Online: URL: http://www.­orientdienst.­ de­/­­muslime/minikurs/quelle_k.shtml [Stand 2009-05-18].

Orientdienst o. J. Muslime verstehen. Online: URL: http://www.orientdienst.de/­mus­l­i­me/­­­aus­laend­er­­statistik.­shtml [Stand 2009-01-26].

o.V. Die textorientierte Übersetzungswissenschaft. Online: URL: http://www.tu-chemnitz.­de/­­phil/english/chairs/linguist/­independent/kursmaterialien­/ttp/EM­theo­r­­i­e­_­­text.pdf [PD­F­­­-­­­Datei]­ [Stand ­2009-03-31].

o.V. History of Bible Translation in Turkey. Online: URL: http://www.translation-trust.org/html/history.html. [Stand 2012-01-10].

o.V. 2008. Peter Pikkert on The Great Experiment. Islam and Christianity. Online: URL:http://islamdom.blogspot.com/2008/12/peter-pikkert-on-great-expe­ri­ment.h­t­ml [Stand 2009-01-30].

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Pickering, Wilbur 1977. The Identity of the New Testament Text. Nashville: Nelson. Und Online: URL: http://www.revisedstandard.net/text/WNP/ [Stand 2009-06-13].

Prabhupāda, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami [1896] 2012. Die Lehren Ṡrī Kṛṣṇa Caitanyas: Eine Abhandlung über wirkliches spirituelles Leben. http://www.prabhupada-books.de/­chai¬tanya/caitanyas-lehren.pdf [PDF-DATEI] [Stand 2012-06-19].

Privratsky, Bruce 2010. A History of Turkish Bible Translations. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.scribd.com/doc/51331567/A-History-of-Turkish-BIble-Translations-Privratsky-March-2011-v-F. [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2017-10-10].

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Rosas, Marta 2004. Book review: Don Kiraly’s A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Edu­ca­tion. Online: URL: http://www.lingo24.com/articles/­Book_re­view_­Don­_Kiralys_A_Social_Constru­c­ti­vist_­Ap­proach_to_Transla­tor_­Ed­u­ca­t­ion­21.­html [Stand 2009-02-08].

Rothen, Bernhard 2003. Einführung: Eine revolutionäre Übersetzungstheorie bricht sich Bahn. (Gemein­deabende am 19. und 26. Mai und 2. Juni 2003). Und Online: URL: http://www.bibeluebersetzungen.ch/fisch/einfuehrung19mai.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-02].

Rothen, Bernhard, Felber, Stefan & Wick, Peter 2003. Kritische Anfragen an moderne Bibel­übersetzungen. Online: URL: http:www.bibelueber­set­zungen.ch. [Stand 2009-01-01].

Ruciyar, Baran 2008. Aleviten: Kizilbash – Alewiten. Kurdica. Auszug aus Ronahî 8/2004. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.kurdica.com/News-sid-Kizilbash-Alewiten-142.html [Stand 2010-06-22]. Ruciyar, Baran. Hewramî (Gorani). Online: URL: http://qirayis.de/Content-pa-printpage-pid-95.html [Stand 2009-01-16].

Schmitt, Rüdiger 2000. Die iranischen Sprachen in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert. Karte zu iranischen Sprachen. Online: URL: http://­de.­wikipedia.­­org/­wiki/Bild:KurdenSprache.JPG [Stand 2008-12-08].

Schweda, Christian M. 2005. Kom­munikations­modelle. Online: URL: wwwbode.­cs.tum.edu/zope/lectures­/seminars/­WS03/uf-­­projman­/­files/­Folien­/Kom­munikat­ions­­modelle.ppt [Stand 2009-01-07].

Selcan, Zülfü 1997. Die Entwicklung der Zaza-Sprache. Ware 12/1998, 152-163. Baiersbronn. Und Online: URL: http://www. http://www.arikah.net/enzyklopadie/­Zazaische_­Sprache/EntwicklungZSpr_A5Selcan.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-18]. [Engl.: The Development of the Zaza-Language.].

SIL International 2009a. SIL Academic Training: Training for Roles in Language Work – Linguist-Trans­lator. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/training/­re­qui­re­ments_ling-trans.htm [Stand 2009-03-19].

SIL International 2009b. A Brief History of SIL International. Online: URL: http://www.sil.org/sil/­history.­htm [Stand 2009-02-06].

Smith, Kevin Gary 2007. The Emergence of Relevance Theory as a Theoretical Framework for Bible Translation. Conspectus 4, 65-81. Rivonia: South African Theological Seminary. Online: URL: http://www.satsonline.org/satsonline/­user­files/­Smith,%20­The%20­Em­e­rgen­ce%20of%20Relevance%20Theory.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-02-12].

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Stamm 2007. Online: URL: http://www.univie.ac.at/voelkerkunde­/html­/inh/­stud­­/studmate_files/stamm-staat%20SS07/95AZA3.pdf [Stand 2008-12-21].

Statistik-Portal 2006. Gebiet und Bevölkerung – Ausländische Be­völker­­ung. Online: URL: http://www.­statis­tik-­portal.­de/Statistik-Portal/de_jb01_­jahr­tab2.­asp. [Stand 2009-01-26].

Temizbas, Suvar o. D. Dimli: Wir, unsere Heimat und unsere Sprache. Online: URL: http://www.­coli.­uni-saarland.de/fs-coli/procs/temizbas.html [Stand 2009-05-18]. [Engl.: Dimli: We, our Home and our language.].

Tezcür, Güneş Murat 2009. Kurdish Nationalism and Identity in Turkey: A Conceptual Reinterpretation. European Journal of Turkish Studies (ejts): Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey. Online: URL: http://ejts.revues.org/index4008.html [accessed 2012-01-21].

The destruction of Kurdish villages. Online: URL: http://users.westnet.gr­/~cgian/­villages.htm [Stand 2008-12-10].

The Heritage Web Site from Ismaili.net 2010. The Fortress of Alamut. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.ismaili.net/histoire/history06/history602.html [Stand 2010-06-23].

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The Shannon-Weaver Model. o. J. Online: URL: http://www.cultsock.­ndirect.­co.­uk/­­MUHome/cshtml/introductory­/sw.­html [Stand 2008-08-01].

Todd, Terry L. 2002. A Grammar of Dimili (also known as Zaza). 2nd edition. Stockholm: Ire­met Förlag. Und Online: URL: http://www.forum-linguistik.de/Zaza-Dimli/­page2.html [Stand 2009-01-28].

Todd, Terry L. 2002. A Grammar of Dımılı (also known as Zaza). 2nd edition. Stockholm: Ire­met Förlag. Und Online: URL: http://www.forum-linguistik.de/Zaza-Dimli/­page2.html [Stand 2009-01-28].

Tornecengi, Hawar, 2009. Khalê Gağani. Online im Internet: URL: http://www.radio­zaza.de/Hawar%20Torn%EAcengi/KHALK%CAK%20(Khal%EA%20Gagani).htm [Stand 2011-12-28].

Türkei-Information 2008. EU-Fortschrittsbericht 2008. Newsletter Türkei der Friedrich-Ebert-Stif­tung Nr. 13/November, 1. İstanbul: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Online: URL: http://­library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/tuerkei/04293/tuerkeiinformation2008,13.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-20]. [Engl.: EU-Report of Progress 2008. Newsletter Zurkey oft he Friedrich-Ebert-Foundation.].

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Underwood, Mick 2003. Mass Media: Maletzke’s Model. Online: URL: http://­www.­cultsock.­ndirect.­co.uk­/MUHome/­cshtml­/media/mc.html#image [Stand 2008-08-28].

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UNESCO Bangkok 2009. Promoting Mother Tongue-based Multilingual Education. Bangkok: Asia-Pacific Programme of Education for All (APPEAL). [CR-ROM]. And Online: URL: www.unescobkk.org/education/appeal [accessed 2011-04-11].

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von Leesen, Gesa 2007. „Das sagt man nicht!“ Online: URL: https://web.archive.org/web/20101104184628/http://www.das-parlament.de/2… [Stand 2019-03-03]. Behindertenrichtlinien, Behinderungsregeln, political correctness, politicalcorrectness

Walter, Stephan 2005. Funktionales Übersetzen und übersetzungsrelevante Textanalyse, in Baecker, Iris (Hg.): Das Wort – Germanistisches Jahrbuch der GUS, 355-374. Moskau. Online: URL: www.daad.ru/wort/wort2005/Walter27.pdf [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2008-08-29].

Watson, Paul Joseph & Jones, Alex 2008. The Fruits Of Globalization: Rotten To The Core. Online: URL: http://www.prisonplanet.com/articles/­november2005/081105rottento­the­core.htm [accessed 2010-02-11].

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White, Paul. Ethnic Differentiation among the Kurds: Kurmancî, Kizilbash and Zaza. Online: URL: http://www.members.tripod.com/~zaza_kirmanc/research/paul.htm#2 [Stand 2009-05-18].

Wick, Peter 2004. Die Bibel als Heilige Schrift auslegen und übersetzen. Zerstören und bauen: Die Macht des schwachen Wortes. Referate. Und Online: URL: http://www. bibeluebersetzungen.ch/link2.php [PDF-Datei] [Stand 2009-01-03].

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Wöhrmann, Friederike o. J. Was man alles über Bücher wissen sollte… Online: URL: http://www.kostmos.de/specials/specials.php?id=22­&PHP­SE­SS­ID­=­4­­f­a7­­­­db­­­­7582c06d5­9­5d­e­f67ff70c901e0 [Stand 2009-06-30].

w/o Author. 2008. Peter Pikkert on The Great Experiment. Islam and Christianity. Online: URL:http://islamdom.blogspot.com/2008/12/peter-pikkert-on-great-expe­ri­ment.h­t­ml [2009-01-30].

w/o A. 2011. Zoroastrianism and Parsiism. Online: URL: http://encyclopedia2.­thefree­dicti­o­nary.com/Zoroastrianism+and+Parsiism [adressed 2011-03-13].

w/o A. w/o Date. Online: URL: Sufis – Die Freimaurer des Ostens? Hamburg: internetloge.de / internetloge.org. [accessed 2012-01-20]. [Engl.: Sufis – The Freemasons of the East?].

w/o A. Türkische Bibelgesellschaft: „Christentum kein Import aus dem Westen“. APD. Katholisches Magazin für Kirche und Kultur. Online Im Internet:URL: http://www.katholisches.info/?p=1873 [Stand 2011-11-24]. [Engl.: The Turkic Bible Society: “Christianity is not an import from the West”].

Wöhrmann, Friederike w/o Date. Was man alles über Bücher wissen sollte… Online: URL: In­­ter­­neteintrag: http://www.kostmos.de/specials/specials.php?id=22­&PHP­SE­SS­ID­=­4­­f­a7­­­­db­­­­7582c06d5­9­5d­e­f67ff70c901e0 [accessed 2009-06-30].

Yanover, Yori 2013. There is no such thing as Judeo-Christian values. http://www.jewishpress.com/blogs/yoris-news-clips/theres-no-such-thing-a…­ti­an­-values/2013/12/26/ [accessed 2016-07-30]. (Judentum, Christentum, jüdisch christliches Abendland, konservatives Judentum, Orthodoxie, orthodoxes Judentum, OrthodoxieJudentum, JudentumOrthodoxie)

Yus, Francisco 2009. Relevance Theory Online Bibliographic Service. Universitat d’Alacant. Online: URL: http://www.ua.es/personal/francisco.yus/rt.html [accessed 2009-02-12].

Zaza: Sprache 2007. Online: URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/­Kur­dische_­Sprache [accessed 2008-12-10]. [Engl.: Zaza: Language.].

Zaza: Volk 2007. Online: URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaza [accessed 2008-12-10]. [Engl.: Zaza: People.].

Zirker, Hans 2006. Verantwortung und Schuld – Zur Anthropologie von Koran und Bibel. Online: URL: http://www.miless.uni-duisburg-essen.de/­servlets/­Document­Servlet­?id=­10602 [Stand 2009-05-18].

Ziya Gökalp 2008. Online: URL: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki­/Ziya­_­Gök­alp­ [Stand 2008-12-10].

 

Persönliche Kommunikation

(Gespräche und E-mail Korrespondenz sind vom Autor schriftlich aufgezeichnet. Kürzel

wei­sen auf Verfasser die ungenannt bleiben wollen.)

AM 2009. RT und ICCT. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 05. März 2009.

Blöcher, Detlef 2008. Fragebogenstudie. Persönliches Gespräch am 24. Juli 2008. Buchenauer Hof.

Brockhaus, Ulrich 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der Elberfelder-Bibel. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

CW 2009. Empirical Study on Translation. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Februar 2009.

Dewran, Hasan 2011. Alevitismus und religiöser Einfluss auf die Zaza. Persönliche Kommunikation. Zaza Kulturfest Mannheim, 16. Oktober.

Dewran, Hasan 2011. Alevism and religious Influence on the Zaza people. Personal communication. Zaza Cultural Celebration Mannheim, 16th October.

Dreyer, Martin 2012. 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der Volxbibel. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

Fischer, Alexander A. 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der Psalmen in der BasisBibel. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

Gutt, Ernst-August 2007. Relevanz-Theorie. Persönliches Gespräch am 14. Mai 2007. Horsleys Green.

Gutt, Ernst-August 2009a. Relevanz-Theorie Ausbildungskonzepte. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 04. Februar 2009.

Gutt, Ernst-August 2009b. Questionnaire. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 04. Februar 2009.

Haacker, Klaus 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung im Römerbrief-Kommentar. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Mai 2012.

Hill, Harriet S. 2009. Relevanz-Theorie ICCT. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 04. Februar 2009.

Jahr, Hannelore 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der BasisBibel. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

Karan, Mark E. 2008. Questionnaire. Persönliches Gespräch am22. Mai 2008. Kandern.

MC 2009. Anthropological Insights. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 11. März 2009.

MT 2008. Zazaki. Persönliches Gespräch am 20. Dezember 2008. Gießen.

Nord, Christiane 2008. Funktionalansatz. Persönliches Gespräch auf 4. Bibelübersetzungs­forum 12-13.05.2009. Wiedenest: Bibelschule Wiedenest.

Nord, Christiane 2009. Funktionalansatz. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 13. Februar 2009.

Noss, Philip A. 2007. Nidas Äquivalenzmodell. Persönliches Gespräch am 12. Mai 2007. Horsleys Green.

Noss, Philip A. 2009. Empirical Study on Translation. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 03. März 2009.

Oelschläger, Ulrich 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der Bibe in gerechter Sprache. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

Pattemore, Stephen 2009. Asia Pacific Translators Training. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 11. März 2009.

RH 2006. Zaza und Nachbarvölker. Persönliches Gespräch am 15. April 2006. Gießen.

RH 2007. Zaza-Stammesnamen und -strukturen. Persönliches Gespräch am 20. Juni 2007.

RH 2008. Zaza und Zazaki. Persönliches Gespräch am 03. März 2008. Gießen.

Söding, Thomas 2012. Problemstellungen bei der Übersetzung der Einheitsübersetzung. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 18. Juni 2012.

TG 2005. Freundesbrief. Persönliches Gespräch am 10. Oktober 2005. Gießen.

Van der Merwe, Christo H. J. 2009. Funktionalansatz. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 04. Februar 2009.

Wendland, Ernst R. 2009. Translator Training. E-mail Korrespondenz vom 15. Juni 2009.

 

 

 

Exegetische Hilfsmittel (Bibelübersetzungen)

Abbott-Smith, G. 1937. A Manual Greeek Lexicon of the New Testament. 3d ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.

ABD 1992. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Freedman, David Noel. New Haven: Yale University Press.

ANLEX GNTDICT – Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament. [1994] 2000 Timothy and Barbara Friberg. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

BAG 1957. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F. & Gingrich, F.W. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412; basiert auf Bauer4 [1952]).

BAGD 1979. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412; basiert auf Bauer5 [1958]).

BDAG 2000. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Chicago: The University of Chicago. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (basiert auf deutschen Ausgaben: Bauer, Walter 1988. Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur, 6th edition, Aland Kurt, Aland, Barbara & Reichmann, Viktor und frühere englische Ausgaben von BAG (1957; 1. Aufl.), BAGD (1979; 2. Aufl.), Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. (Hgg.). Chicago: The University of Chicago.) (s. IATG3 2014:27, 412).

BDB Gesenius, Wilhelm [1833] 2015. Hebrew-Aramaic and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Complete and unabridged. By Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles Briggs. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Berkowitz, Luci 1990. Thesaurus Linguae Graecae: Canon of Greek Authors and Works.3d ed. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.

BHT [2001] 2015. Hebrew Old Testament. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Bibelkommentar Neues Testament – Edition C. 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

Biblischer Commentar über das Alte Testament 1869-1889. Keil, Carl Friedrich & Delitzsch, Franz. 19 Bände. Enthält 4 Bände zu NT Matthäus (1877), Johannes (1881), Hebräer (1885), Briefe des Petrus und Judas (1883). Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke. [Engl.: Commentary on the Old Testament. Reprint from ed. 1866-1891. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Peabody: Hendricksons.].

Bovon, François [1989] 2012. Das Evangelium nach Lukas: EKK III/1-4. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Aufl. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos / Neukirchener Verlag.

BRAA6 1988. Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur. Bauer, Walter, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage, im Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung/Münster unter besonderer Mitwirkung von Viktor Reichmann herausgegeben von Kurt Aland und Barbara Aland. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Bretschneider, Gottlieb [1824] [1829] 1840. Lexicon manual graeco-latinum in libros novi testament. 3th ed. Leipzig: Sumptibus Jo. Ambros. Barthii.

Brooke, A. E.; McLean, N.; and Thackeray, H. St. J., eds. 1906-. The Old Testament in Greek according to the Text of Codex Vaticanus, Supplemented from Other Uncial Manuscripts, with a Critical Apparatus containing the Variants of the Chief Ancient Authorities for the Text of the Septuagint. London: Cambridge University Press.

Computer-Assisted Tools for Septuagint Study, directed by Robert A. Kraft and Emanuel Tov. Morphologically Analyzed Septuagint. URL: gopher://ccat.sas.upenn.­edu:3333/11/Religious/­Biblical/LXXMorph. [cited as CATSS Morph LXX]

Concordance to the Novum Testamentum Graece (KNTG) 1987. With Collaboration of Bachmann, H. & Slaby, W. A. Institute for New Testament Textual Research and the Computer Center of Münster University. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Concordantia Veteris Testamenti: Hebraicae arque Aramaicae (Konkordanz zum Hebräischen Alten Testament [1958] 1981. Lisowsky, Gerhard & Rost, Leonhard. Zweite Auflage. Nach dem Masoretischen Text. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Conybeare, F. C., and Stock, St. George 1905. Readings from the Septuagint. Boston: Ginn.

Conybeare, F. C., and Stock, St. George 1980. A Grammar of the Septuagint. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. [reprint of the grammar portion of Conybeare and Stock 1905]

Conybeare, F. C., and Stock, St. George 1988. Grammar of Septuagint Greek with Selected Readings from the Septuagint According to the Text of Swete. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. [reprint of the entirety of Conybeare and Stock 1905.]

Cremer, Hermann [1867] 1915. Biblisch-theologisches Wörterbuch der neutestamentlichen Gräcität. Gotha: F. A. Perthes. (10. Aufl., bearb. v. Kögel, Johannes. Gotha 1911-1915). [Engl.: Cremer, Hermann 1883. Biblico-Theological Lexicon of the New Testament Greek. 3rd English ed. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.].

Das grosse Bibellexikon 1987. Burkhardt, Helmut, Grünzweig, Fritz, Laubach, Fritz & Maier, Gerhard. Giessen: Brunnen Verlag. [Engl.: Bruce, Frederik F; Douglas, James D., Hillyer N. & Packer, James I. 1980. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity.].

Edition C 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Bibelkommentar Neues Testament. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

EDNT 1993. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

EKK Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament (1982 – voraussichtlich 2018). Gnilka, Joachim, Klauck, Hans-Josef , Luz, Ulrich & Roloff, Jürgen (Hgg.). 25 Bände. Stuttgart: Patmos.

EKK III/1-4. Das Evangelium nach Lukas [1989] 2012. Bovon, François. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Auflage. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos /Neukirchener Verlag.

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Lexikon zur Bibel. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Neuer sprachlicher Schlüssel zum NT. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

ExWBNT 1980. Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Balz, Horst & Schneider, Gehard. 3/1-3. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. [Engl.: EDNT 1993. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.].

FBD [Circa. 1888] 1998/2015. Faussett Bible Dictionary. Electronic edition. International Bible Translators. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GKzLB 1984. Grosse Konkordanz zur Lutherbibel. Berlin und Altenburg: Evangelische Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT [2004] 2015. Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 27 Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt et al. (eds.). Stuttgart: United Bible Societies and German Bible Society. (GNT – The Greek New Testament (GNT), Ed. by Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, and Allen Wikgren, in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Münster/Westphalia, Fourth Edition (with exactly the same text as the Nestle-Aland 27th Edition of the Greek New Testament), Copyright © 1966, 1968, 1975 by the United Bible Societies (UBS) and 1993, 1994 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), Stuttgart.).

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 27 Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 4. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 1973. Frisk, Hjalmar. 2 Bände (Bd. 1 A-Ko; Bd. 2 Kρ-Ω). Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.

HALOT [2000] 2015. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Koehler, Ludwig & Baumgartner, Walter (eds.). KBL. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Hatch, Edwin, and Redpath, H. A. 1998. A Concordance to the Septuagint, and the other Greek Versions of the Old Testament (Including the Apocryphal Books). 2nd ed. 2 vols. With an Introductory Essay by Robert A. Kraft and Emanuel Tov, and a Hebrew/Aramaic Index to the Septuagint by Takamitsu Muraoka. Grand Rapids: Baker. [First edition Oxford: Clarendon, 1897-1906; Muraoka’s Index is also available separately (Muraoka 1998)]

HNT 1877. Ha-Berit ha-Ḥadashah. Hebrew New Testament. Salkinson, Isaac Edward & Ginsburg, Edward. British Missionary Society.

HNTC 1998-2000. Holman New Testament Commentary. Anders, Max (ed.). 12 Bände. 11 Autoren. Tennessee: Broadman & Holman.

Holladay, William Lee [1971] 1996. A Concise Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Leiden: Brill.

ICC 1895-2010. International Critical Commentary. Emerton, John Adney, Cranfield, Charles E. B., Stanton, Graham Norman (eds.). London: T& T Clark.

ISBE [1914] 1939. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Revision. Orr, James, Nuelsen, John, Mullins, Edgar, Evans, Morris & Kyle, Melvin Grove (eds.). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. Online: URL: http://www.internationalstandardbible.com [Stand 2014-09-20].

JFB 1997. Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible. Jamieson, R., Fausset, A. R., & Brown, D. Oak Harbor. [entstanden Ende 19. Jahrhundert].

Kassühlke, Rudolf [1997] 2012. Kleines Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament: Griechisch-Deutsch. Vierte Auflage. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [als Anhang beigefügt am Novum Testamentum Graece. 28. Auflage. Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.].

KEK 1832-. Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Begr. von Heinrich August Meyer. 10. Aufl. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Kraft, Robert A., and Tov, Emanuel, eds. 1986. Ruth. Computer Assisted Tools for Septuagint Studies (CATSS), vol. 1. Septuagint and Cognate Studies Series, no. 20. Atlanta: Scholars Press. [URL: ftp://ftp.lehigh.edu/pub/listserv/ioudaios-l/Articles/rkruth pp. 53-68)]

Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch [1926-1961] 1986. Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. 9. Unveränderte Auflage. München: C. H. Beck. [Engl.: Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash. 2013. 3 Vols. Bellingham: Lexham Press.].

LEH [1992, 2003] 2012. Lust, Johan, Eynikel, Erik & Hauspie, Kathrin. A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint. Revised Ed. Orig. 2 Bde A-I (Bd. 1), K-O (Bd. 2). Einbändige Version bei Peabody: Hendrickson. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als GELXX. [DVD].

Lexikon zur Bibel 2013. Rienecker, Fritz, Maier, Gerhard, Wendel, Ulrich & Schick, Alexander. Wuppertal: SCM Brockhaus.

Liddell, H. G. and Scott, R. 1925-1940. A Greek-English Lexicon. New (9th) ed. Revised and augmented by H. S. Jones and Roderick McKenzie. Oxford: Clarendon. [URL: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/lexindex?entry=fe/rw]

Liddell, H. G., and Scott, R. 1871.A Lexicon. Abridged from the authors’ Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford: Clarendon. [URL: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/midlid?entry=fe/rw]

L&N [1988] 2012. Louw, J. P. & Nida, Eugene A. Louw-Nida Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. 2nd ed. New York: United Bible Societies (UBS). Also on BibleWorks 9.0 as LNLEX. [DVD].

LSJ sup [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. Septuagint Lexicon Supplement to the Greek. Also on BibleWorks 9.0 as LSDICT (supplement). [DVD].

LSJ [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. The Abridged Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon. Also on BibleWorks 9.0 as LSDICT. [DVD].

LSJM [1996] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th Revised Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Also on BibleWorks 9.0 as LSDICT. [DVD].

(Meyers) Kritischer-exegetischer Kommentar zum NT 1832-. 10. Aufl. seit 1832. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Muraoka, Takamitsu 1993. A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (Twelve Prophets). Leuven: Peeters.

Muraoka, Takamitsu 1998. Hebrew/Aramaic Index to the Septuagint: Keyed to the Hatch-Redpath Concordance. Grand Rapids: Baker.

NAC 1991-2012. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

NET 2005. New English Translation. Online: URL: http://netbible.com/content/download [accessed 2014-07-28].

Newman, Barclay M. 1971. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. London: United Bible Societies. [included in Aland et al. 1983. The Greek New Testament3. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies.].

Newman, Barclay M. jr. [1971] 1993. A Concise Greek-English Dicitionary of the New Testament. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies / Deutsche Bibel Gesellschaft.

NIDNT [1975] 1986. New International Dictionary of the New Testament. Brown, Colin. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. [Original 1978 Exeter: Paternoster Press].

Novum Testamentum Graece: Mit Wörterbuch 2012. Nestle-Aland. 28. Auflage. Herausgegeben vom Institut für Neutesatmentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

NTD [2001] 2005. Stuhlmacher, Peter & Weder, Heinz. Das Neue Testament Deutsch. Wuppertal: Brockhaus, Vandenhoech & Ruprecht. Eingebunden in ElbiWin. [CD-ROM].

Pape, Wilhelm [1842] 2012. Griechisch-Deutsches Handwörterbuch. 3 Bände. Ulan Press.

Pasor, Georg [1619/1622] 1686. Etyma nominum propriorum itemque analysis Hebraeorum, Syriacorum et Latinorum vocabulorum quae in novo testamento uspiam occurrunt. Orig. Herborn 1622. Weitere Aufl. Goslar, 1639; London, 1644. Leipzig: Sumptibus Joh. Friedrich Gleditsch.

Passow, Franz [1823] 1993. Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 4 Bände. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

PNTC 1988-2012. The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Carson, Donald A. 15 Bände. 12 Autoren. Leicester: Apollos.

PONS 2006. Kompaktwörterbuch Althebräisch (Althebräisch-Deutsch). Stuttgart: Ernst Klett. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Preuschen, Erwin 1910. Vollständiges Griechisch-Deutsches Handwörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der übrigen urchristlichen Literatur. Gießen: Alfred Töpelmann (vormals J. Ricker).

Preuschen2, Erwin & Bauer, Walter 1928. Griechisch-Deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der übrigen urchristlichen Literatur. Zweite, völlig neu gearbeitete Auflage zu Erwin Preuschens Vollständigem Griechisch-Deutschem Handwörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der übrigen urchristlichen Literatur. Gießen: Alfred Töpelmann. [published in ten parts, 1925-1928.].

Rehkopf, Friedrich 1989. Septuaginta-Vokabular. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

RGG3 [1956] 1965 1998. Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Dritte ungek. Fassung. Berlin: Directmedia. Berlin: Directmedia. [als Buch: Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck). [CD-ROM].

RGG4 1998. Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Vierte, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage. Betz, Hans Dieter, Browning, Don S., Janowski, Bernd, & Jüngl, Eberhard (Hgg.). Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Rahlfs, Alfred 1935. Septuaginta, id est Vetus Testamentum Graece iuxta LXX interpretes. 2 vols. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Schleusner, Johann Frierich 1829. Novus thesaurus philologico-criticus, sive in LXX et reliquos interpretes graecos ac sciptores apocryphos Veteris Testamenti. Post Bielium, et alios viros doctos congessit edidit. 2d ed. 3 vols. Orig. Leipzig. London: Jacobi Duncan.

SKK-NT 2006. Stuttgarter Kleiner Kommentar: Neues Testament. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk. Eingebunden in MFchi. [CD-ROM].

Swete, H. B., ed. 1887-1912. The Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Taylor, Bernard A. 1994. The Analytical Lexicon to the Septuagint: A Complete Parsing Guide. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

TDNT [1985] 2015. Kittel, Gerhard, Friedrich, Gerhard & Bromley, Geoffrey W. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Abridged). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Thackeray, H. St. John 1909. A Grammar of the Old Testament in Greek according to the Septuagint. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; reprint ed., Hildesheim: Georg Olms, 1987.

TBLNT [1971] 1986. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar, Beyreuther, Erich & Bietenhard, Hans. 2. Bände. 4. Aufl. Studienausgabe/7. Aufl. Gesamt­ausgabe. Wup­per­tal: Brockhaus. [neu 2014: Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.] [Engl.: Colin Brown 1986. New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology NIDNT. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.].

TBLNT [2000] 2014. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.

The Pulpit Commentary 1909-1919. Spence, H. D. M & Exell, S. 77 Bände. Logos 4 Biblesoftware.

ThHKNT 1988-2012. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, Bd. 3-17. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

THAT 1984. Jenni, Ernst (Hg.). Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2. Bd. 3. durch­ge­se­hene Aufl. unter Mitarbeit von Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser.

ThWAT / TWAT [1970] 1973. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Botterweck & Ringgren. Bd. 1-10. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

ThWAT /TWAT [1970] 1973-2000. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Botterweck & Ringgren. Bd. 1-10. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. [Engl.: TDNT 2011. The Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, 10 Vols. Ed. Ringgren. TDOT übersetzt von David E. Green. Reprint. Grand Rapids: Erdmans. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].].

ThWNT / TWNT [1933] 1978. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Kittel, Gerhard. Bd. 1-10/2. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

ThWNT [1933-1979] 1979. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Kittel, Gerhard. Bd. 1-10/2. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. [Engl.: TDNT [1985] 2012. Kittel, Gerhard, Friedrich, Gerhard & Bromley, Geoffrey W. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Abridged). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].].

TWOT [1973 2003 2015. Harris, Laird R., Archer, Gleason L. Jr. & Waltke, Bruce K. The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Press of Chicago. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

UBSDICT [1971] 2015. Newman, Barclay M. Jr. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

VGNT [1914] 1997 2015. Moulton, James H. & Milligan, George. The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament illustrated from the Papyri and other non-literary sources. Including Scripture Index from Wallace, Daniel. Peabody: Hendrickson. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Vulgata [1969] 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Lateinische Vulgata). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (VUL – Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, Vulgate Latin Bible (VUL), Ed. by R. Weber, B. Fischer, J. Gribomont, H.F.D. Sparks, and W. Thiele [at Beuron and Tuebingen] (German Bible Society).

Vulgate 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: German Bible Society. Also on BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Wolter, Michael 2008. Das Lukasevangelium. Handbuch Zum Neuen Testament (HNT) 5. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament: Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Deutsch und Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Englisch; A Hebrew/Aramaic-English and Hebrew/Aramaic-German Lexicon of the Old Testament. Bosman, H. J., Oosting, R., & Potsma, F. 2009; 2009. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Ziegler, J., et al., eds. 1931-. Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum auctoritate Academiae Litterarum Gottingensis editum. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Zorell, Franciscus S.I. 1990. Lexicon graecum novi testamenti. Editio quarta typis editionis alterius expressa novaque appendice biblographica aucta. 4th ed. Roma: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico.

Zorell, Franciscus S.I. 1999. Lexicon graecum novi testamenti. Editio quarta typis editionis alterius expressa novaque appendice biblographica aucta. 5th ed. Roma: Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico.

Zorell, Franziskus S. J. 1931. Novi testamenti lexicon graecum. Ed. altera no vis curis retractata. Paris: Sumptibus P. Lethielleux.

Zorell, Franziskus S. J. 1961. Novi testamenti lexicon graecum. Editio tertia quae est editio altera. Paris: Sumptibus P. Lethielleux.

Zorell, Franziskus S. J.1 [oben] 1911. Novi testamenti lexicon graecum. Cum approbatione superiorum. Paris: Sumptibus P. Lethielleux.

 

Exegetische Hilfsmittel (Übersetzung/ Kommentare)

Allen, David L. 2010. Hebrews. NAC. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

ANLEX GNTDICT – Analytical Lexicon to the Greek New Testament. [1994] 2000 Timothy and Barbara Friberg. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

BAG 1957. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F. & Gingrich, F.W. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412).

BAGD [1958] 1979. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. 2nd ed. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:412).

Barrett, C. K. 1957. A Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. HNTC. New York: Harper & Row.

Bauer6 1988. Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur. Bauer, Walter, völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage, im Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung/Münster unter besonderer Mitwirkung von Viktor Reichmann herausgegeben von Kurt Aland und Barbara Aland. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

BDAG [2000] 2012. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (Deutsche Ausgabe: Walter Bauer’s Griechisch-deutsches Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des Neuen Testaments und der frühchristlichen Literatur, 6th edition, Aland Kurt, Aland, Barbara & Reichmann, Viktor und frühere englische Ausgaben von Arndt, W.F., Gingrich, F.W. & Danker, F.W. (Hgg.). BDAG3. Aufl. Chicago: The University of Chicago. (s. IATG3 2014:27, 412).

BDB Gesenius, Wilhelm [1833] 2015. Hebrew-Aramaic and English Lexicon of the Old Testament. Complete and unabridged. By Francis Brown, S.R. Driver, and Charles Briggs. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Betz, Hans Dieter 1988. Der Galaterbrief. Ein Kommentar zum Brief des Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinden in Galatien. Hermeneia. Kaiser: München.

Betz, Hans Dieter 1988. Der Galaterbrief. Ein Kommentar zum Brief des Apostels Paulus an die Gemeinden in Galatien. Hermeneia. Kaiser: München. [Engl.: Betz, Hans Dieter [1979] 1984. Galatians. Reprint. Philadelphia: Fortress.].

BHT [2001] 2015. Hebrew Old Testament. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Bibelkommentar Neues Testament – Edition C. 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

Biblischer Commentar über das Alte Testament 1869-1889. Keil, Carl Friedrich & Delitzsch, Franz. 19 Bände. Enthält 4 Bände zu NT Matthäus (1877), Johannes (1881), Hebräer (1885), Briefe des Petrus und Judas (1883). Leipzig: Dörffling und Franke. [Engl.: Commentary on the Old Testament. Reprint from ed. 1866-1891. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. Peabody: Hendricksons.].

Bock, Darrell L. 1996. Luke. NIV application Commentary (NIVAC). 42 Bände (20 davon NT). General Editor Terry Muck. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Boer, Martinus C, de 2011. Galatians: A Commentary. The New Testament Library. Louisville: John Knox.

Boring, M. Eugene 2006. Mark. NTL. Louisville: Westminster John Knox. p. 6–9;

Bovon, François [1989] 2012. Das Evangelium nach Lukas: EKK III/1-4. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Aufl. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos / Neukirchener Verlag.

Bruce, Frederick Fyvie [1982] 2002. The Epistle to the Galatians: A commentary on the Greek text. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Buchanan, George W. 1976. To the Hebrews. AB. 2nd ed. Garden City: Doubleday. p. xix.

Byrne, Brendan 1996. Romans. SP 6. Collegeville: Liturgical Press.

Clarke, Howard 2003. The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Concordance to the Novum Testamentum Graece (KNTG) 1987. With Collaboration of Bachmann, H. & Slaby, W. A. Institute for New Testament Textual Research and the Computer Center of Münster University. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Concordantia Veteris Testamenti: Hebraicae arque Aramaicae (Konkordanz zum Hebräischen Alten Testament [1958] 1981. Lisowsky, Gerhard & Rost, Leonhard. Zweite Auflage. Nach dem Masoretischen Text. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Cranfield, C. E. B. [1975] 1979. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 2 vols. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Das grosse Bibellexikon 1987. Burkhardt, Helmut, Grünzweig, Fritz, Laubach, Fritz & Maier, Gerhard. Giessen: Brunnen Verlag. [Engl.: Bruce, Frederik F; Douglas, James D., Hillyer N. & Packer, James I. 1980. The Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Leicester: Inter-Varsity.].

DeSilva, David A. 2000. Perseverance in Gratitude: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on the Epistle “to the Hebrews”. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Dowd, Sharyn 2000. Reading Mark. RNT. Macon: Smyth & Helwys. p. 2.

Dunn, James D. G. 1988. Romans 1–8, Romans 9–16. WBC 38A–B. Dallas: Word.

Dunn, James D. G. 2011. Epistle to the Galatians. Black’s New Testament Commentary. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic.

Dunn, James D. G. 2013. The Theology of Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. New Testament Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Edition C 2006. Maier, Gerhard. Bibelkommentar Neues Testament. Neuhausen: Hänssler. Eingebunden in Bible Workshop [CR-ROM].

Egger, Wilhelm & Wick, Peter 2013. Methodenlehre zum Neuen Testament: Biblische Texte selbständig auslegen. Freiburg: Herder.

Einführungen und Erklärungen aus der Stuttgarter Erklärungsbibel. Neuausgabe mit Apokryphen. 2005. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

EKK Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament (1982 – voraussichtlich 2018). Gnilka, Joachim, Klauck, Hans-Josef , Luz, Ulrich & Roloff, Jürgen (Hgg.). 25 Bände. Stuttgart: Patmos.

EKK III/1-4. Das Evangelium nach Lukas [1989] 2012. Bovon, François. Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. 4. Bände. 2. Auflage. Stuttgart / Neukirchen-Vlyn: Patmos /Neukirchener Verlag.

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Lexikon zur Bibel. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

ELBIWIN kompakt 2002. Neuer sprachlicher Schlüssel zum NT. Ingenierbüro Matthias Frey. Reutlingen. [CD-ROM].

Evans, Craig A. 2001. Mark 8:27–16:20. WBC 34B. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

ExWBNT 1980. Exegetisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Balz, Horst & Schneider, Gehard. 3/1-3. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. [Engl.: EDNT. Exegetical Dictionary of the New Testament. 3 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.].

FBD [Circa. 1888] 1998. Faussett Bible Dictionary. Electronic edition. International Bible Translators. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Fitzmyer, Joseph A. 1993. Romans: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. AB 33. New York: Doubleday.

GIND [1965] 2015. Gingrich, Wilbur F. & Danker, William, Frederick. Shorter Lexicon of the Greek New Testament. 2nd ed. Ed. by F. Gingrich and Danker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GKzLB 1984. Grosse Konkordanz zur Lutherbibel. Berlin und Altenburg: Evangelische Haupt-Bibelgesellschaft.

Gnilka, Joachim 1986. Das Matthäusevangelium. HTKNT. Freiburg: Herder.

GNT [2004] 2015. Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 28. Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt et al. (eds.). Stuttgart: United Bible Societies and German Bible Society. (GNT – The Greek New Testament (GNT), Ed. by Kurt Aland, Matthew Black, Carlo M. Martini, Bruce M. Metzger, and Allen Wikgren, in cooperation with the Institute for New Testament Textual Research, Münster/Westphalia, Fourth Edition (with exactly the same text as the Nestle-Aland 27th Edition of the Greek New Testament), Copyright © 1966, 1968, 1975 by the United Bible Societies (UBS) and 1993, 1994 by Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (German Bible Society), Stuttgart.)

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt u.a. (eds.). Nestle-Aland 27 Aufl. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

GNT 2004. The Greek New Testament. Aland, Kurt, u. a. (Hgg.). 4. Aufl. Holzgerlingen: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

Grässer, Erich 1990. An die Hebräer. EKK. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener. p. 1:15.

Gray, George B. 1912. A critical and exegetical commentary on the book of Isaiah, I–XXXIX. International Critical Commentary (ICC). New York: C. Scribner’s Sons.

Green, Joel 1997. The Gospel of Luke. NICNT. The New International Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Green, Joel B. & Turner, Max (eds.) 2000. Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies & Systematic Theology. Einleitungsband zu Two Horizons New Testament Commentary (THNTC) 1994-2012. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Griechisches etymologisches Wörterbuch 1973. Frisk, Hjalmar. 2 Bände (Bd. 1 A-Ko; Bd. 2 Kρ-Ω). Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag.

Grundmann, Walter 1989. Das Evangelium nach Markus. ThHKNT Bd. 2. 10. Aufl. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

Hagner, Donald A. 1998. Matthew 1-13. Word Biblical Commentary 33A (WBC). Dallas: Word.

HALOT [2000] 2015. The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Koehler, Ludwig & Baumgartner, Walter (eds.). KBL. Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Harris, Murray J. 2005. The Second Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

HNT 1877. Ha-Berit ha-Ḥadashah. Hebrew New Testament. Salkinson, Isaac Edward & Ginsburg, Edward. British Missionary Society.

HNT 1877. Ha-Berit ha-Ḥadashah. Hebrew New Testament. Salkinson, Isaac Edward & Ginsburg, Edward. British Missionary Society.

HNT 1969-2008. Handbuch zum Neuen Testament. 20 Bände. Lindemann, Andreas. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

HNTC 1998-2000. Holman New Testament Commentary. Anders, Max (ed.). 12 Bände. 11 Autoren. Tennessee: Broadman & Holman.

ICC 1895-2010. International Critical Commentary. Emerton, John Adney, Cranfield, Charles E. B., Stanton, Graham Norman (eds.). London: T& T Clark.

ISBE [1914] 1939. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Revision. Orr, James, Nuelsen, John, Mullins, Edgar, Evans, Morris & Kyle, Melvin Grove (eds.). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. Online: URL: http://www.internationalstandardbible.com [Stand 2014-09-20].

Jewett, Robert 2007. Romans. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress.

JFB 1997. Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible. Jamieson, R., Fausset, A. R., & Brown, D. Oak Harbor. [entstanden Ende 19. Jahrhundert].

Kassühlke, Rudolf [1997] 2015. Kleines Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament: Griechisch-Deutsch. Vierte Auflage. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. [als Anhang beigefügt am Novum Testamentum Graece. 28. Auflage. Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.].

Keck, Leander E. 2005. Romans. ANTC. Nashville: Abingdon. [Abingdon New Testament Commentary].

Keener, Craig S. 2009. Romans: A New Covenant Commentary. Eugene: Cascade.

Keener, Craig S. 2009. The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

KEK 1832-. Kritisch-exegetischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Begr. von Heinrich August Meyer. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Klein, Hans 2006. Das Lukasevangelium. (Meyers) Kritischer-exegetischer Kommentar zum NT (10. Aufl. seit 1832). 1. Aufl. Bd I/3. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch [1926-1961] 1986. Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. 9. Unveränderte Auflage. München: C. H. Beck. [Engl.: Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash. 2013. 3 Vols. Bellingham: Lexham Press.].

L&N [1988] 2012. Louw, J. P. & Nida, Eugene A. Louw-Nida Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. 2nd ed. New York: United Bible Societies (UBS). Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 as LNLEX. [DVD].

LEH [1992, 2003] 2012. Lust, Johan, Eynikel, Erik & Hauspie, Kathrin. A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint. Revised Ed. Orig. 2 Bde A-I (Bd. 1), K-O (Bd. 2). Einbändige Version bei Peabody: Hendrickson. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als GELXX. [DVD].

Lenski, R. C. H. 1936. The Interpretation of St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans. Minneapolis: Augsburg.

Lexikon zur Bibel 2013. Rienecker, Fritz, Maier, Gerhard, Wendel, Ulrich & Schick, Alexander. Wuppertal: SCM Brockhaus.

Lightfoot, J. B. 1881. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Philippians. 6th ed. London: Macmillan;

Lightfoot, J. B. 1890. The Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians, with Introduction, Notes, and Dissertations. 10th ed. London: Macmillan.

Lightfoot, J. B. 1897. Saint Paul’s Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon. London: Macmillan.

LSJ (supplement) [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. Septuagint Lexicon Supplement to the Greek. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als LSDICT (supplement). [DVD].

LSJ [1998] 2012. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. The Abridged Liddell-Scott Greek-English Lexicon. Auch auf BibleWorks 9.0 als LSDICT. [DVD].

LSJM [1996] 2015. Liddell, Henry George, Scott, Robert, Jones, Henry Stuart & McKenzie, Robert. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th Revised Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Marcus, Joel B. 2000. Mark 1–8. AB. New York: Doubleday. 1:64–69.

Marshall, Howard I. 1978. The Gospel of Luke: A commentary on the Greek text. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). Paternoster Press: Exeter.

Martin, R. P. 1998. 2 Corinthians. Word Biblical Commentary Vol. 40. Dallas: Word.

Matera, Frank J. 2010. Romans. Paideia Commentary on the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Baker.

McKnight, Scot 1995. Galatians. NIV application Commentary (NIVAC). 42 Bände (20 davon NT). General Editor Terry Muck. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.

Meiser, Martin 2007. Galater. Novum Testamentum Patristicum Band 9 (NTP). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht.

Moo, Douglas J. 1996. The Epistle to the Romans. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Mußner, Franz [1974] 2002. Der Galaterbrief. 5. Aufl. HThKNT – Ungekürzte Sonderausgabe. Herder: Freiburg. (katholische Kommentar: Herders Theologischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament).

NAC 1991-2012. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

NET 2005. New English Translation. Online: URL: http://netbible.com/content/download [accessed 2014-07-28].

Newman, Barclay M. 1971. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. London: United Bible Societies. [included in Aland et al. 1983. The Greek New Testament3. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies.].

Newman, Barclay M. jr. [1971] 1993. A Concise Greek-English Dicitionary of the New Testament. Stuttgart: United Bible Societies / Deutsche Bibel Gesellschaft.

NIDNT [1975] 1986. New International Dictionary of the New Testament. Brown, Colin. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. [Original 1978 Exeter: Paternoster Press].

NIGTC 1978-2005. New International Greek Testament Commentary (NIGTC). 13. Vols. Grand Rapids:Eerdmans.

Novum Testamentum Graece: Mit Wörterbuch 2012. Nestle-Aland. 28. Auflage. Herausgegeben vom Institut für Neutesatmentliche Textforschung Münster. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

NTD [2001] 2005. Stuhlmacher, Peter & Weder, Heinz. Das Neue Testament Deutsch. Wuppertal: Brockhaus, Vandenhoech & Ruprecht. Eingebunden in ElbiWin. [CD-ROM].

O’Brien, Peter T. 2010. The Letter to the Hebrews. PNTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Oepke, Albrecht 1964. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 2. Verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung Rohde, Joachim 1984. 5. Aufl.

Oepke, Albrecht 1964. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 2. Verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung Rohde, Joachim 1984. 5. Aufl.

Passow, Franz [1823] 1993. Handwörterbuch der griechischen Sprache. 4 Bände. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

PNTC 1988-2012. The Pillar New Testament Commentary. Carson, Donald A. 15 Bände. 12 Autoren. Leicester: Apollos.

PONS 2006. Kompaktwörterbuch Althebräisch (Althebräisch-Deutsch). Stuttgart: Ernst Klett.

Rohde, Joachim 1984. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 5. Aufl 2. Überarbeitete und verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung von Oepke, Albrecht 1964.

Rohde, Joachim 1984. Der Brief des Paulus an die Galater. 5. Aufl 2. Überarbeitete und verbesserte Aufl. ThHK Bd. 9. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt. Überarbeitung von Oepke, Albrecht 1964.

Sanday, William & Headlam, Arthur C. 1902. A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans. 5th ed. ICC. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

Schreiner, Thomas R. 1998. Romans. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker.

SKK-NT 2006. Stuttgarter Kleiner Kommentar: Neues Testament. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk. Eingebunden in MFchi. [CD-ROM].

Smith, Gary V. 2007. Isaiah 1–39. (E. R. Clendenen, Ed.). The New American Commentary (NAC). Nashville: Broadman & Holman.

Stein, Robert H. 1992. Vol. 24: Luke. The New American Commentary. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers.

Stein, Robert H. 2008. Mark. BECNT. Grand Rapids: Baker.

Str-B [1926-1961] 1986. Kommentar zum Neuen Testament aus Talmud und Midrasch. 9. Unveränderte Auflage. München: C. H. Beck. [Engl.: Strack, Hermann L. & Billerbeck, Paul. Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Midrash. 2013. 3 Vols. Bellingham: Lexham Press.].

TBLNT [1971] 1986. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar, Beyreuther, Erich & Bietenhard, Hans. 2. Bände. 4. Aufl. Studienausgabe/7. Aufl. Gesamt­ausgabe. Wup­per­tal: Brockhaus. [neu 2014: Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.].

TBLNT 2014. Theologisches Begriffslexikon zum Neuen Testament. Coenen, Lothar & Haacker, Klaus. 2. Aufl. Wuppertal: SCM R. Brockhaus.

TDNT [1985] 2015. Kittel, Gerhard, Friedrich, Gerhard & Bromley, Geoffrey W. Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Abridged). Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

THAT 1984. Jenni, Ernst (Hg.). Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament. 2. Bd. 3. durch­ge­se­hene Aufl. unter Mitarbeit von Claus Westermann. München: Chr. Kaiser.

The Greek Testament Critical Exegetical Commentary [1863] 1878. Alford, Henry. 4 Vols. Combined 5th ed. London: Rivington.

The Pulpit Commentary 1909-1919. Spence, H. D. M & Exell, S. 77 Bände. Logos 4 Biblesoftware.

ThHK 1928-1964. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament. Erste Reihe. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

ThHKNT 1988-2012. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, Bd. 3-17. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

Thiselton, Anthony C. 2000. The First Epistle to the Corinthians: A Commentary on the Greek Text. NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. p. xvi.

THKNT 1988-2012. Theologischer Handkommentar zum Neuen Testament, Bd. 3-17. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

THNTC 1994-2012. Einleitungsband: Between Two Horizons: Spanning New Testament Studies & Systematic Theology. Green, Joel B. & Turner, Max (eds.) 2000. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

ThWAT [1970] 1973. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Botterweck & Ringgren. Bd. 1-10. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

ThWNT / TWNT [1933] 1978. Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Neuen Testament. Kittel, Gerhard. Bd. 1-10/2. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

TWOT [1971; 1980] 2015. Harris, Laird R., Archer, Gleason L. jr., Waltke, Bruce K. The Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. Chicago: Moody Press of Chicago. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

UBSDICT [1971] 2015. Newman, Barclay M. Jr. A Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, Stuttgart. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

VGNT [1914] 1997 2015. Moulton, James H. & Milligan, George. The Vocabulary of the Greek New Testament illustrated from the Papyri and other non-literary sources. Including Scripture Index from Wallace, Daniel. Peabody: Hendrickson. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Vouga, François 1998. An die Galater. HNT (Handbuch zum Neuen Testament) 10. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Vulgata [1969] 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Lateinische Vulgata). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD]. (VUL – Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem, Vulgate Latin Bible (VUL), Ed. by R. Weber, B. Fischer, J. Gribomont, H.F.D. Sparks, and W. Thiele [at Beuron and Tuebingen] (German Bible Society).

Vulgate 1983. Biblia Sacra Iuxta Vulgatam Versionem (Vulgate Latin Bible). Weber, R. et al (eds.). Stuttgart: German Bible Society. Auch auf BibleWorks 10.0 2015 [DVD].

Watts, John D. W. 2005a. Vol. 24: Isaiah 1–33 (Revised Edition). WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Watts, John D. W. 2005b. Vol. 25: Isaiah 34–66 (Revised Edition). WBC. Nashville: Thomas Nelson.

Wiefel, Wolfgang 1989. Das Evangelium nach Lukas. ThHKNT Bd. 3. Leipzig: Evangelische Verlagsanstalt.

Witherington,Ben III 2004. Paul’s Letter to the Romans: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

Wolter, Michael 2008. Das Lukasevangelium. Handbuch Zum Neuen Testament (HNT) 5. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament: Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Deutsch und Hebräisch/Aramäisch-Englisch; A Hebrew/Aramaic-English and Hebrew/Aramaic-German Lexicon of the Old Testament. Bosman, H. J., Oosting, R., & Potsma, F. 2009; 2009. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

 

 

Nidas Werke (teilweise in Kooperation mit anderen)

Eberhard Werner, Institut für evangelische Missiologie, Gießen. werner@forschungsstiftung.net

 

Anmerkung: Aus Gründen der Anschaulichkeit von Nidas bibliographischem Wirken folgt diese Auflistung der Erstauflage von Werken.

 

Nida, Eugene A. 1937. The Tarahumara language. Investigaciones Lingüísticas 4, 140-44.

Nida, Eugene A. 1943. Linguistic interludes. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1945. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation Problems. Word 1, 194-208.

Nida, Eugene A. 1946. Syntax: A Descriptive Analysis. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947a. A Translators Commentary on Selected Passages. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947b. Field techniques in descriptive linguistics. International Journal of American Linguistics 13, 138-46.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947c. Linguistic Interludes. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. [1947] 1961. Bible Translating: An Analysis of Principles and Proce­du­res, with Special Reference to Aboriginal Languages. Rev. ed. London: United Bible Societies. (ursprünglich New York: American Bible Society).

Nida, Eugene A. 1948a. The Analysis of Grammatical Constituents. Language 24, 168-77.

Nida, Eugene A. 1948b. The identification of morphemes. Language 24, 414-41.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949a. Approaching reading through the native language. Language Learning 2, 16-20.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949b. Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words. 2n ed. Ann Arbor: Uni­versity of Michigan.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951a. A system for the description of semantic elements. Word 7/1, 1-14.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951b. Outline of Descriptive Syntax. Glendale: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952a. God’s Word in Man’s Language. New York: Harper and Brothers.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952b. A New Methodology in Biblical Exegesis. BT 3/3, 97-111.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952-53. Selective listening. Language Learning 4, 92-101.

Nida, Eugene A. [1954] 1975. Customs and Cultures: Anthropology for Christian Missions. Re­print. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1957. Learning a foreign language: A Handbook Prepared especially for Mis­sionaries. Ann Arbor: Friendship Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958a. Analysis of Meaning and Dictionary Making. International Jour­nal of American Linguistics, Franz Boas Centennial Vol. 24/4, 279-292.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958b. The Relationship of Social Structure to the Problems of Evangelism in Latin America. Practical Anthropology 5/3, 101-123.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959a. Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating, in Brower, Reuben A. (ed.): On Translation, 11-31. Cambridge: Harvard Uni­versity Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959b. Introducing Animism. New York: Friendship.

Nida, Eugene A. [1960] 1990. Message and Mission: The Communication of the Chris­tian Faith. Rev. Ausgabe mit Vorwort von Charles Kraft. Pasa­dena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960a. BT’s Use of Receptor-Language Texts. BT 11/2, 82-86.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960b. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Linguistic Series 4. Norman: Sum­mer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961a. The Indigenous Churches of Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 97-105, 110.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961b. Communication of the Gospel to Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 145-156.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964a. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Prin­cip­les and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964b. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation-Problems, in Hymes, Dell (ed.): Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology, 90-97. New York: Harper & Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Norman: SIL.

Nida, Eugene A. 1965. Dynamics of Church Growth, in McGavran, Donald A. (Hg.): Church Growth and Christian Mission. New York: Harper and Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967a. Comment Traduire La Bible. Biel: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967b. Morphology. The descriptive analysis of words. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Nida, Eugene A. [1968] 1981. Das Wesen des Übersetzens, in Wilss, Wolfram (Hg.): Über­setz­ungswissenschaft (WdF 535), 123-149. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buch­ge­sell­schaft. (Englisches Original: Nida, Eugene A. 1975. Science of Translation, in Dil, Answar (ed.): Language Structure and Translation. Essays by Eugene A. Nida, 79-101. Stanford). (Artikel ist ein Vortrag von 1968).

Nida, Eugene A. 1968. Religion Across Cultures. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1968. Gott spricht viele Sprachen. 2. Aufl. Stuttgart: Evangelischer Mis­sions­ver­lag. (dt. Übersetzung von God’s Word in Man’s Language 1952).

Nida, Eugene A. 1969a. Die Pfingstkirchen in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (Hg.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 90-96. Berlin: Lettner.

Nida, Eugene A. 1969b. Afrikanische Einflüsse auf das religiöse Leben in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (Hg.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 39-44. Berlin: Lettner.

Nida, Eugene A. 1969c. Communication of the Gospel in Latin America. Guernavaca: CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentacion).

Nida, Eugene A. 1970. Formal Correspondence in Translation. BT 21, 105-13.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972a. Book of a Thousand Tongues. Revised ed. New York: United Bible So­cieties.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972b. Implications of Contemporary Linguistics for Biblical Scholarship. JoBL 91/1, 73-89. Und Online: URL: http://links.jstor.­org/sici?sici­=00­2­1-­9231%28197203%2991%3A1%3C73%3A­IOCL­FB­%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5. [PDF-Dokument] [Stand 2008-03-04].

Nida, Eugene A. 1972c. Communication and Translation. BT 23/3, 309-16.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972d. Varieties of Language. BT 23/3, 316-322.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972e. Linguistic Theories and Bible Translating. BT 23/3, 301-308.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972f. New Religions for Old: A Study of Culture Change. Practical Anthropolgy 19/1, 13-26.

Nida, Eugene A. 1973. Sprache und Kommunikation, in Nelson, John Robert & Pannen­berg, Wolfhart (Hg.): Um Einheit und Heil der Menschheit, 181 – 200. Frankfurt: Lembeck.

Nida, Eugene A. 1974a. Translation, in Sebeok, Thomas A. (ed.): Current Trends in Linguis­tic 12, 1045-66. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1974b. Translator’s Notes on Literacy Selections. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975a. Exploring Semantic Structures. München: Wilhelm Fink.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975b. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. [1975] 1979. Componential Analysis of Meaning: An Introduction to Se­man­tic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976a. Scientific Insights to be Gained from Bible Translating. Technical Papers for BT 27/1, 142-144. London: United Bible Socities.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976b. Translation as Communication, in Nickel, Gerhard (Hg.): Pro­ceed­ings of the Fourth International Congress of Applied Linguistics, Bd. 2, 61-82. Stuttgart.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976c. A Framework of the Analysis and Evaluation of Theories of Trans­lation, in Brislin, Richard W. (ed.): Translation: Applications and Research, 47-92. New York: Gardner Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977a. Good News for Everyone: How to Use the Good News Bible (Today’s English Version). Waco: Word Books.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977b. Translating means Communicating: A Sociolinguistic Theory of Translation. Linguistics and Anthropology. Proceedings (= Georgetown Univ. round table on languages and linguistics 28), 213-229. Washington.

Nida, Eugene A. 1978. Einige Grundsätze heutiger Bibelübersetzung, in Meurer, Siegfried (Hg.)­: Eine Bibel – viele Übersetzungen: Not oder Notwendigkeit? 11-18. Stutt­gart: Ev. Bibelwerk.

Nida, Eugene A. 1980a. The Selection of a Translation Team. BT 31, 434-437.

Nida, Eugene A. 1980b. Problems of Biblical Exegesis in the Third World, in Aland, Kurt & Brecht, Martin (Hg.): Text, Wort, Glaube, 159 – 165. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981a. Bible Translation for the Eighties. International Review of Mission 70/279, 130-139. Edinburgh.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981b. Translators Are Born Not Made. BT 32, 401-405.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981c. Das Wesen des Übersetzens, in Wilss, Wolfram (Hg.): Übersetzungs­wissen­schaft (WdF 535), 123-149. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft.

Nida, Eugene A. 1982a. Translating Meaning. San Dimas: English Language Institute.

Nida, Eugene A. 1982b. Quality in Translation. BT 33/3, 329-332.

Nida, Eugene A. 1983. Style in Bible Translating, in Meurer, Siegfried (Hg.): Mittelpunkt Bibel. Ulrich Flick zum 60. Geburtstag, 70 – 78. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft.

Nida, Eugene A. 1984. Signs, Sense, and Translation. Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. 1985. Translating Means Translating Meaning. A Sociosemiotic Approach to Translating, in Braunmüller, Wilhelm (Hg.): Der Übersetzer und seine Stel­l­ung in der Öffentlichkeit. X. Weltkongreß der FIT 19, 119-125. Wien.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991a. Trends in Bible Translating within the United Bible Societies: An Histor­ical Perspective. BT 42, 2-5.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991b. Textual Criticism and Entropy, in Norton, Gerard J. & Pisano, Stephen (Hgg.): Tradition of the Text: Studies Offered to Dominique Barthélemy in Celebration of His 70th Birthday. Orbus Biblicus et Orientalis 109, 124-128. Freiburg (Schweiz): Universitätsverlag.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991c. The Paradoxes of Translation. BT 42, 5-27.

Nida, Eugene A. 1992. Theories of Translation, in Freedman, D. N. et al. (eds.): The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday.

Nida, Eugene A. 1995. Names and Titles. Manuscript. [unpublished].

Nida, Eugene A. 1996. The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Bruxelles: Editions du Hazard.

Nida, Eugene A. 1999. Multimedia Communication of the Biblical Message, in Soukup, Paul A. & Hodgsor, Robert (eds.): Fidelity and Translation. New York: American Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. 2000. Creativity in Translating, in Omanson, Roger L. (ed.): I must speak to you plainly: In Honor of Robert G. Bratcher, 155-166. Carlisle: Paternoster.

Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Contexts in Translating. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2003. Fascinated by Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004a. Similar but Different, in Arduini, Stefano & Hodgson, Robert (eds.): Similarity and Difference in Translation Proceedings of the International Con­ference on Similarity and Translation. New York, May 31 -June 1 2001. Rimini: Guaraldi.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004b. Traducerea sensurilor – traducerea: posibil i imposibil. Iai: Institute European.

Jin, Di & Nida, Eugene A. 1984. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1979. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1980. A Translators Handbook on the First Letter from Peter. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1961. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of Mark. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Colos­sians and to Philemon. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1982. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s letter to the Ephesians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1975. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Thes­sa­lonians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1983. A Translators Handbook on the Letter to the Hebrews. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Loh, I-Jin 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Philip­pians. New York: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Louw, Johannes P. 1988. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. New York: Amercian Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. & Romero, Moisés C. 1950. The pronominal series in Maya (Yucatec). International Journal of American Linguistics 16, 193-97.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1972. A Translators Handbook on the Acts of the Apostles. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1973. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1980. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of John. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Price, Brynmor F. 1978. A Translators Handbook on the Book of Jonah. New York: United Bible Societies.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William D. 1974. Understanding Latin Americans. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William 1981. Meaning across Cultures: A Study on Bible Trans­lating. Maryknoll: Orbis.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. Theorie und Praxis des Übersetzens unter be­so­nd­er­­er Berücksichtigung der Bibelübersetzung. New York: Weltbund der Bibel­ge­sell­schaften. (Deutsche Übersetzung von Kassühlke, Rudolf & Loewen, Jacob A.).

Nida, Eugene A. & u. a. 1983. Style and Discourse: With Special Reference to the Text of the Greek New Testament. Cape Town: Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. & Waard, Jan de 1973. A Translator’s Handbook on the Book of Ruth. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Wonderly, William 1963. Cultural Differences and the Communication of Christian values. Practical Anthropology 10/6, 241-58.

Shedd, L. M. & Nida, Eugene A. 1952. A Pedagogical Grammar of the Quechua Tongue. Cochabamba: Bolivian Indian Mission.

Bibliography on Eugene A. Nida (partially in cooperation to others)

Eberhard Werner, Institut für evangelische Missiologie, Gießen. werner@forschungsstiftung.net

Notes

The list is following the sequence of the publishing date. Titles follow the newest edition, that’s why the first publishing date is in square brackets (e.g. [xxx]).

SIL International as it is called nowadays was formerly only SIL as it is often quoted in bibliographys.

BT is the abbrivation for Bible Translator.

German titles are transl. by Eberhard Werner.

 

Nida, Eugene A. 1937. The Tarahumara Language. Investigaciones Lingüísticas 4, 140-44.

Nida, Eugene A. 1943. Linguistic interludes. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. 1945. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation Problems. Word 1, 194-208.

Nida, Eugene A. 1946. Syntax: A Descriptive Analysis. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947a. A Translators Commentary on Selected Passages. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947b. Field techniques in descriptive linguistics. International Journal of American Linguistics 13, 138-46.

Nida, Eugene A. 1947c. Linguistic Interludes. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. [1947] 1961. Bible Translating: An Analysis of Principles and Proce­du­res, with Special Reference to Aboriginal Languages. Rev. ed. London: United Bible Societies. (initially New York: American Bible Society).

Nida, Eugene A. 1948a. The Analysis of Grammatical Constituents. Language 24, 168-77.

Nida, Eugene A. 1948b. The identification of morphemes. Language 24, 414-41.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949a. Approaching reading through the native language. Language Learning 2, 16-20.

Nida, Eugene A. 1949b. Morphology: The Descriptive Analysis of Words. 2nd ed. Ann Arbor: Uni­versity of Michigan.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951a. A system for the description of semantic elements. Word 7/1, 1-14.

Nida, Eugene A. 1951b. Outline of Descriptive Syntax. Glendale: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952a. God’s Word in Man’s Language. New York: Harper and Brothers.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952b. A New Methodology in Biblical Exegesis. BT 3/3, 97-111.

Nida, Eugene A. 1952-53. Selective listening. Language Learning 4, 92-101.

Nida, Eugene A. [1954] 1975. Customs and Cultures: Anthropology for Christian Missions. Re­print. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1957. Learning a foreign language: A Handbook Prepared especially for Mis­sionaries. Ann Arbor: Friendship Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958a. Analysis of Meaning and Dictionary Making. International Jour­nal of American Linguistics, Franz Boas Centennial Vol. 24/4, 279-292.

Nida, Eugene A. 1958b. The Relationship of Social Structure to the Problems of Evangelism in Latin America. Practical Anthropology 5/3, 101-123.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959a. Principles of Translation as Exemplified by Bible Translating, in Brower, Reuben A. (ed.): On Translation, 11-31. Cambridge: Harvard Uni­versity Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1959b. Introducing Animism. New York: Friendship.

Nida, Eugene A. [1960] 1990. Message and Mission: The Communication of the Chris­tian Faith. Rev. edition with preface from Charles Kraft. Pasa­dena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960a. BT’s Use of Receptor-Language Texts. BT 11/2, 82-86.

Nida, Eugene A. 1960b. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Linguistic Series 4. Norman: Sum­mer Institute of Linguistics of the University of Oklahoma.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961a. The Indigenous Churches of Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 97-105, 110.

Nida, Eugene A. 1961b. Communication of the Gospel to Latin America. Practical Anthropology 8, 145-156.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964a. Toward a Science of Translating – with Special Reference to Prin­cip­les and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964b. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation-Problems, in Hymes, Dell (ed.): Language in Culture and Society: A Reader in Linguistics and Anthropology, 90-97. New York: Harper & Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1964. A Synopsis of English Syntax. Norman: SIL International.

Nida, Eugene A. 1965. Dynamics of Church Growth, in McGavran, Donald A. (ed.): Church Growth and Christian Mission. New York: Harper and Row.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967a. Comment Traduire La Bible. Biel: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1967b. Morphology. The descriptive analysis of words. Michigan: University of Michigan Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975. Science of Translation, in Dil, Answar (ed.): Language Structure and Translation. Essays by Eugene A. Nida, 79-101. Stanford. (Lecture from 1968).

Nida, Eugene A. 1968. Religion Across Cultures. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. 1969a. Die Pfingstkirchen in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (ed.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 90-96. Berlin: Lettner. (English: Pentecostal Churches in Latin America.).

Nida, Eugene A. 1969b. Afrikanische Einflüsse auf das religiöse Leben in Lateinamerika, in Tschuy, Theo (ed.): Explo­si­ves Lateinamerika, 39-44. Berlin: Lettner. (English: African Influences on the religious Life in Latin America.).

Nida, Eugene A. 1969c. Communication of the Gospel in Latin America. Guernavaca: CIDOC (Centro Intercultural de Documentacion).

Nida, Eugene A. 1969d. Science of Translation, Language 45 [1969], 483-498.

Nida, Eugene A. 1970. Formal Correspondence in Translation. BT 21, 105-13.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972a. Book of a Thousand Tongues. Rev. ed. New York: United Bible So­cieties.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972b. Implications of Contemporary Linguistics for Biblical Scholarship. JoBL 91/1, 73-89. Also Online: URL: http://links.jstor.­org/sici?sici­=00­2­1-­9231%28197203%2991%3A1%3C73%3A­IOCL­FB­%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5. [PDF-Document] [accessed 2010-01-04].

Nida, Eugene A. 1972c. Communication and Translation. BT 23/3, 309-16.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972d. Varieties of Language. BT 23/3, 316-322.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972e. Linguistic Theories and Bible Translating. BT 23/3, 301-308.

Nida, Eugene A. 1972f. New Religions for Old: A Study of Culture Change. Practical Anthropolgy 19/1, 13-26.

Nida, Eugene A. 1973. Sprache und Kommunikation, in Nelson, John Robert & Pannen­berg, Wolfhart (ed.): Um Einheit und Heil der Menschheit, 181 – 200. Frankfurt: Lembeck. (English: Language and Communication.).

Nida, Eugene A. 1974a. Translation, in Sebeok, Thomas A. (ed.): Current Trends in Linguis­tic 12, 1045-66. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1974b. Translator’s Notes on Literacy Selections. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975a. Exploring Semantic Structures. München: Wilhelm Fink.

Nida, Eugene A. 1975b. Language Structure and Translation. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. [1975] 1979. Componential Analysis of Meaning: An Introduction to Se­man­tic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976a. Scientific Insights to be Gained from Bible Translating. Technical Papers for BT 27/1, 142-144. London: United Bible Socities.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976b. Translation as Communication, in Nickel, Gerhard (ed.): Pro­ceed­ings of the Fourth International Congress of Applied Linguistics, Bd. 2, 61-82. Stuttgart.

Nida, Eugene A. 1976c. A Framework of the Analysis and Evaluation of Theories of Trans­lation, in Brislin, Richard W. (ed.): Translation: Applications and Research, 47-92. New York: Gardner Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977a. Good News for Everyone: How to Use the Good News Bible (Today’s English Version). Waco: Word Books.

Nida, Eugene A. 1977b. Translating means Communicating: A Sociolinguistic Theory of Translation. Linguistics and Anthropology. Proceedings (= Georgetown Univ. round table on languages and linguistics 28), 213-229. Washington.

Nida, Eugene A. 1978. Einige Grundsätze heutiger Bibelübersetzung, in Meurer, Siegfried (ed.)­: Eine Bibel – viele Übersetzungen: Not oder Notwendigkeit? 11-18. Stutt­gart: Ev. Bibelwerk. (English: Some basics about modern Bible Translation.).

Nida, Eugene A. 1980a. The Selection of a Translation Team. BT 31, 434-437.

Nida, Eugene A. 1980b. Problems of Biblical Exegesis in the Third World, in Aland, Kurt & Brecht, Martin (ed.): Text, Wort, Glaube, 159 – 165. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981a. Bible Translation for the Eighties. International Review of Mission 70/279, 130-139. Edinburgh.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981b. Translators Are Born Not Made. BT 32, 401-405.

Nida, Eugene A. 1981c. Das Wesen des Übersetzens, in Wilss, Wolfram (ed.): Übersetzungs­wissen­schaft (WdF 535), 123-149. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft/Scientif publishing house. (English: The Essence of Translation.).

Nida, Eugene A. 1982a. Translating Meaning. San Dimas: English Language Institute.

Nida, Eugene A. 1982b. Quality in Translation. BT 33/3, 329-332.

Nida, Eugene A. 1983. Style in Bible Translating, in Meurer, Siegfried (ed.): Mittelpunkt Bibel. Ulrich Flick zum 60. Geburtstag, 70 – 78. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibel­ge­sell­schaft/ German Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. 1984. Signs, Sense, and Translation. Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. 1985. Translating Means Translating Meaning. A Sociosemiotic Approach to Translating, in Braunmüller, Wilhelm (ed.): Der Übersetzer und seine Stel­l­ung in der Öffentlichkeit. X. Weltkongreß der FIT 19, 119-125. Wien.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991a. Trends in Bible Translating within the United Bible Societies: An Histor­ical Perspective. BT 42, 2-5.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991b. Textual Criticism and Entropy, in Norton, Gerard J. & Pisano, Stephen (eds.): Tradition of the Text: Studies Offered to Dominique Barthélemy in Celebration of His 70th Birthday. Orbus Biblicus et Orientalis 109, 124-128. Freiburg (Schweiz): Universitätsverlag/University Press.

Nida, Eugene A. 1991c. The Paradoxes of Translation. BT 42, 5-27.

Nida, Eugene A. 1992. Theories of Translation, in Freedman, D. N. et al. (eds.): The Anchor Bible Dictionary. New York: Doubleday.

Nida, Eugene A. 1996. The Sociolinguistics of Interlingual Communication. Bruxelles: Editions du Hazard.

Nida, Eugene A. 1999. Multimedia Communication of the Biblical Message, in Soukup, Paul A. & Hodgsor, Robert (eds.): Fidelity and Translation. New York: American Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. 2000. Creativity in Translating, in Omanson, Roger L. (ed.): I must speak to you plainly: In Honor of Robert G. Bratcher, 155-166. Carlisle: Paternoster.

Nida, Eugene A. 2001. Contexts in Translating. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2003. Fascinated by Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004a. Similar but Different, in Arduini, Stefano & Hodgson, Robert (eds.): Similarity and Difference in Translation Proceedings of the International Con­ference on Similarity and Translation. New York, May 31 -June 1 2001. Rimini: Guaraldi.

Nida, Eugene A. 2004b. Traducerea sensurilor – traducerea: posibil i imposibil. Iai: Institute European.

Jin, Di & Nida, Eugene A. 1984. On Translation. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1979. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Galatians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Arichea, Daniel C. 1980. A Translators Handbook on the First Letter from Peter. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1961. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of Mark. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Colos­sians and to Philemon. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Bratcher, Robert G. 1982. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s letter to the Ephesians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1975. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letters to the Thes­sa­lonians. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Ellingworth, Paul E. 1983. A Translators Handbook on the Letter to the Hebrews. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Loh, I-Jin 1977. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Philip­pians. New York: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Louw, Johannes P. 1988. Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains. New York: Amercian Bible Society.

Nida, Eugene A. & Romero, Moisés C. 1950. The pronominal series in Maya (Yucatec). International Journal of American Linguistics 16, 193-97.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1972. A Translators Handbook on the Acts of the Apostles. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1973. A Translators Handbook on Paul’s Letter to the Romans. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Newman, Barclay Moon 1980. A Translators Handbook on the Gospel of John. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Price, Brynmor F. 1978. A Translators Handbook on the Book of Jonah. New York: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William D. 1974. Understanding Latin Americans. Pasadena: William Carey.

Nida, Eugene A. & Reyburn, William 1981. Meaning across Cultures: A Study on Bible Trans­lating. Maryknoll: Orbis.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: Brill.

Nida, Eugene A. & Taber, Charles R. 1969. The Theory and Practice of Translation. New York: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & u. a. 1983. Style and Discourse: With Special Reference to the Text of the Greek New Testament. Cape Town: Bible Society of South Africa.

Nida, Eugene A. & Waard, Jan de 1973. A Translator’s Handbook on the Book of Ruth. London: UBS.

Nida, Eugene A. & Waard, Jan de 1986. From one Language to Another. Functional Equivalence in Bible Translating. Nashville: Nelson.

Nida, Eugene A. & Wonderly, William 1963. Cultural Differences and the Communication of Christian values. Practical Anthropology 10/6, 241-58.

Shedd, L. M. & Nida, Eugene A. 1952. A Pedagogical Grammar of the Quechua Tongue. Cochabamba: Bolivian Indian Mission.

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